Hans　Christian　Oersted　and　Ampere　and　Arago　and　Faraday；
  all　of　them　diligent　searchers　after　the　true　nature　of　the　electric
  forces。
  They　freely　gave　their　discoveries　to　the　world　and　Samuel
  Morse　（who　like　Fulton　began　his　career　as　an　artist）　thought
  that　he　could　use　this　new　electric　current　to　transmit　messages
  from　one　city　to　another。　He　intended　to　use　copper
  wire　and　a　little　machine　which　he　had　invented。　People
  laughed　at　him。　Morse　therefore　was　obliged　to　finance　his
  own　experiments　and　soon　he　had　spent　all　his　money　and
  then　he　was　very　poor　and　people　laughed　even　louder。　He
  then　asked　Congress　to　help　him　and　a　special　Committee　on
  Commerce　promised　him　their　support。　But　the　members　of
  Congress　were　not　at　all　interested　and　Morse　had　to　wait
  twelve　years　before　he　was　given　a　small　congressional　appropriation。
  He　then　built　a　‘‘telegraph''　between　Baltimore　and
  Washington。　In　the　year　1887　he　had　shown　his　first　successful
  ‘‘telegraph''　in　one　of　the　lecture　halls　of　New　York
  University。　Finally；　on　the　24th　of　May　of　the　year　1844　the
  first　long…distance　message　was　sent　from　Washington　to
  Baltimore　and　to…day　the　whole　world　is　covered　with　telegraph
  wires　and　we　can　send　news　from　Europe　to　Asia　in　a　few
  seconds。　Twenty…three　years　later　Alexander　Graham　Bell　used
  the　electric　current　for　his　telephone。　And　half　a　century
  afterwards　Marconi　improved　upon　these　ideas　by　inventing　a
  system　of　sending　messages　which　did　away　entirely　with　the　old…
  fashioned　wires。
  While　Morse；　the　New　Englander；　was　working　on　his
  ‘‘telegraph；''　Michael　Faraday；　the　Yorkshire…man；　had　constructed
  the　first　‘‘dynamo。''　This　tiny　little　machine　was　completed
  in　the　year　1881　when　Europe　was　still　trembling　as　a
  result　of　the　great　July　revolutions　which　had　so　severely　upset
  the　plans　of　the　Congress　of　Vienna。　The　first　dynamo　grew
  and　grew　and　grew　and　to…day　it　provides　us　with　heat　and
  with　light　（you　know　the　little　incandescent　bulbs　which　Edison；
  building　upon　French　and　English　experiments　of　the　forties
  and　fifties；　first　made　in　1878）　and　with　power　for　all　sorts
  of　machines。　If　I　am　not　mistaken　the　electric…engine　will
  soon　entirely　drive　out　the　‘‘heat　engine''　just　as　in　the　olden
  days　the　more　highly…organised　prehistoric　animals　drove　out
  their　less　efficient　neighbours。
  Personally　（but　I　know　nothing　about　machinery）　this　will
  make　me　very　happy。　For　the　electric　engine　which　can　be　run
  by　waterpower　is　a　clean　and　companionable　servant　of　mankind
  but　the　‘‘heat…engine；''　the　marvel　of　the　eighteenth　century；
  is　a　noisy　and　dirty　creature　for　ever　filling　the　world　with
  ridiculous　smoke…stacks　and　with　dust　and　soot　and　asking
  that　it　be　fed　with　coal　which　has　to　be　dug　out　of　mines　at
  great　inconvenience　and　risk　to　thousands　of　people。
  And　if　I　were　a　novelist　and　not　a　historian；　who　must　stick
  to　facts　and　may　not　use　his　imagination；　I　would　describe　the
  happy　day　when　the　last　steam　locomotive　shall　be　taken　to　the
  Museum　of　Natural　History　to　be　placed　next　to　the　skeleton
  of　the　Dynosaur　and　the　Pteredactyl　and　the　other　extinct
  creatures　of　a　by…gone　age。
  THE　SOCIAL　REVOLUTION
  BUT　THE　NEW　ENGINES　WERE　VERY
  EXPENSIVE　AND　ONLY　PEOPLE　OF　WEALTH
  COULD　AFFORD　THEM。　THE　OLD　CARPENTER
  OR　SHOEMAKER　WHO　HAD　BEEN　HIS
  OWN　MASTER　IN　HIS　LITTLE　WORKSHOP
  WAS　OBLIGED　TO　HIRE　HIMSELF　OUT　TO
  THE　OWNERS　OF　THE　BIG　MECHANICAL
  TOOLS；　AND　WHILE　HE　MADE　MORE
  MONEY　THAN　BEFORE；　HE　LOST　HIS
  FORMER　INDEPENDENCE　AND　HE　DID　NOT
  LIKE　THAT
  IN　the　olden　days　the　work　of　the　world　had　been　done　by
  independent　workmen　who　sat　in　their　own　little　workshops　in
  the　front　of　their　houses；　who　owned　their　tools；　who　boxed　the
  ears　of　their　own　apprentices　and　who；　within　the　limits　prescribed
  by　their　guilds；　conducted　their　business　as　it　pleased
  them。　They　lived　simple　lives；　and　were　obliged　to　work　very
  long　hours；　but　they　were　their　own　masters。　If　they　got　up
  and　saw　that　it　was　a　fine　day　to　go　fishing；　they　went　fishing
  and　there　was　no　one　to　say　‘‘no。''
  But　the　introduction　of　machinery　changed　this。　A　machine
  is　really　nothing　but　a　greatly　enlarged　tool。　A　railroad
  train　which　carries　you　at　the　speed　of　a　mile　a　minute　is
  in　reality　a　pair　of　very　fast　legs；　and　a　steam　hammer　which
  flattens　heavy　plates　of　iron　is　just　a　terrible　big　fist；　made　of
  steel。
  But　whereas　we　can　all　afford　a　pair　of　good　legs　and　a
  good　strong　fist；　a　railroad　train　and　a　steam　hammer　and　a
  cotton　factory　are　very　expensive　pieces　of　machinery　and　they
  are　not　owned　by　a　single　man；　but　usually　by　a　company　of
  people　who　all　contribute　a　certain　sum　and　then　divide　the
  profits　of　their　railroad　or　cotton　mill　according　to　the　amount
  of　money　which　they　have　invested。
  Therefore；　when　machines　had　been　improved　until　they
  were　really　practicable　and　profitable；　the　builders　of　those
  large　tools；　the　machine　manufacturers；　began　to　look　for　customers
  who　could　afford　to　pay　for　them　in　cash。
  During　the　early　middle　ages；　when　land　had　been　almost
  the　only　form　of　wealth；　the　nobility　were　the　only　people
  who　were　considered　wealthy。　But　as　I　have　told　you　in　a
  previous　chapter；　the　gold　and　silver　which　they　possessed
  was　quite　insignificant　and　they　used　the　old　system　of　barter；
  exchanging　cows　for　horses　and　eggs　for　honey。　During
  the　crusades；　the　burghers　of　the　cities　had　been　able　to　gather
  riches　from　the　reviving　trade　between　the　east　and　the　west；
  and　they　had　been　serious　rivals　of　the　lords　and　the　knights。
  The　French　revolution　had　entirely　destroyed　the　wealth
  of　the　nobility　and　had　enormously　increased　that　of　the　middle
  class　or　‘‘bourgeoisie。''　The　years　of　unrest　which　followed　the
  Great　Revolution　had　offered　many　middle…class　people　a
  chance　to　get　more　than　their　share　of　this　world's　goods。　The
  estates　of　the　church　had　been　confiscated　by　the　French　Convention
  and　had　been　sold　at　auction。　There　had　been　a　terrific
  amount　of　graft。　Land　speculators　had　stolen　thousands
  of　square　miles　of　valuable　land；　and　during　the　Napoleonic
  wars；　they　had　used　their　capital　to　‘‘profiteer''　in　grain　and
  gun…powder；　and　now　they　possessed　more　wealth　than　they
  needed　for　the　actual　expenses　of　their　households；　and　they
  could　afford　to　build　themselves　factories　and　to　hire　men　and
  women　to　work　the　machines。
  This　caused　a　very　abrupt　change　in　the　lives　of　hundreds
  of　thousands　of　people。　Within　a　few　years；　many　cities
  doubled　the　number　of　their　inhabitants　and　the　old　civic　centre
  which　had　been　the　real　‘‘home''　of　the　citizens　was　surrounded
  with　ugly　and　cheaply　built　suburbs　where　the　workmen　slept
  after　their　eleven　or　twelve　hours；　or　thirteen　hours；　spent　in　the
  factories　and　from　where　they　returned　to　the　factory　as　soon
  as　the　whistle　blew。
  Far　and　wide　through　the　countryside　there　was　talk　of　the
  fabulous　sums　of　money　that　could　be　made　in　the　towns。　The
  peasant　boy；　accustomed　to　a　life　in　the　open；　went　to　the　city。
  He　rapidly　lost　his　old　health　amidst　the　smoke　and　dust　and
  dirt　of　those　early　and　badly　ventilated　workshops；　and　the
  end；　very　often；　was　death　in　the　poor…house　or　in　the　hospital。
  Of　course　the　change　from　the　farm　to　the　factory　on　the
  part　of　so　many　people　was　not　accomplished　without　a　certain
  amount　of　opposition。　Since　one　engine　could　do　as　much
  work　as　a　hundred　men；　the　ninety…nine　others　who　were
  thrown　out　of　employment　did　not　like　it。　Frequently　they　attacked
  the　factory…buildings　and　set　fire　to　the　machines；　but
  Insurance　Companies　had　been　organised　as　early　as　the　17th
  century　and　as　a　rule　the　owners　were　well　protected　against　loss。
  Soon；　newer　and　better　machines　were　installed；　the　factory
  was　surrounded　with　a　high　wall　and　then　there　was　an
  end　to　the　rioting。　The　ancient　guilds　could　not　possibly　survive
  in　this　new　world　of　steam　and　iron。　They　went　out　of
  existence　and　then　the　workmen　tried　to　organise　regular　labour
  unions。　But　the　factory…owners；　who　through　their　wealth
  could　exercise　great　influence　upon　the　politicians　of　the　different
  countries；　went　to　the　Legislature　and　had　laws　passed
  which　forbade　the　forming　of　such　trade　unions　because　they
  interfered　with　the　‘‘liberty　of　action''　of　the　working　man。
  Please　do　not　think　that　the　good　members　of　Parliament
  who　passed　these　laws　were　wicked　tyrants。　They　were
  the　true　sons　of　the　revolutionary　period　when　everybody
  talked　of　‘‘liberty''　and　when　people　often　killed　their　neighbours
  because　they　were　not　quite　as　liberty…loving　as　they
  ought　to　have　been。　Since　‘‘liberty''　was　the　foremost　virtue
  of　man；　it　was　not　right　that　labour…unions　should　dictate　to
  their　members　the　hours　during　which　they　could　work　and
  the　wages　which　they　must　demand。　The　workman　must　at
  all　times；　be