Just　then　the　Spanish　throne　happened　to　be　vacant。　It
  had　been　offered　to　the　Catholic　branch　of　the　house　of　Hohenzollern。
  The　French　government　had　objected　and　the　Hohenzollerns
  had　politely　refused　to　accept　the　crown。　But
  Napoleon；　who　was　showing　signs　of　illness；　was　very　much
  under　the　influence　of　his　beautiful　wife；　Eugenie　de　Montijo；
  the　daughter　of　a　Spanish　gentleman　and　the　grand…daughter
  of　William　Kirkpatrick；　an　American　consul　at　Malaga；　where
  the　grapes　come　from。　Eugenie；　although　shrewd　enough；　was
  as　badly　educated　as　most　Spanish　women　of　that　day。　She
  was　at　the　mercy　of　her　spiritual　advisers　and　these　worthy
  gentlemen　felt　no　love　for　the　Protestant　King　of　Prussia。　‘‘Be
  bold；''　was　the　advice　of　the　Empress　to　her　husband；　but　she
  omitted　to　add　the　second　half　of　that　famous　Persian　proverb
  which　admonishes　the　hero　to　‘‘be　bold　but　not　too　bold。''
  Napoleon；　convinced　of　the　strength　of　his　army；　addressed
  himself　to　the　king　of　Prussia　and　insisted　that　the　king　give
  him　assurances　that　‘‘he　would　never　permit　another　candidature
  of　a　Hohenzollern　prince　to　the　Spanish　crown。''　As
  the　Hohenzollerns　had　just　declined　the　honour；　the　demand
  was　superfluous；　and　Bismarck　so　informed　the　French　government。
  But　Napoleon　was　not　satisfied。
  It　was　the　year　1870　and　King　William　was　taking　the
  waters　at　Ems。　There　one　day　he　was　approached　by　the
  French　minister　who　tried　to　re…open　the　discussion。　The　king
  answered　very　pleasantly　that　it　was　a　fine　day　and　that　the
  Spanish　question　was　now　closed　and　that　nothing　more
  remained　to　be　said　upon　the　subject。　As　a　matter　of
  routine；　a　report　of　this　interview　was　telegraphed　to
  Bismarck；　who　handled　all　foreign　affairs。　Bismarck　edited
  the　dispatch　for　the　benefit　of　the　Prussian　and　French
  press。　Many　people　have　called　him　names　for　doing
  this。　Bismarck　however　could　plead　the　excuse　that　the　doctoring
  of　official　news；　since　time　immemorial；　had　been　one
  of　the　privileges　of　all　civilised　governments。　When　the　‘‘edited''
  telegram　was　printed；　the　good　people　in　Berlin　felt　that
  their　old　and　venerable　king　with　his　nice　white　whiskers　had
  been　insulted　by　an　arrogant　little　Frenchman　and　the　equally
  good　people　of　Paris　flew　into　a　rage　because　their　perfectly
  courteous　minister　had　been　shown　the　door　by　a　Royal　Prussian
  flunkey。
  And　so　they　both　went　to　war　and　in　less　than　two　months；
  Napoleon　and　the　greater　part　of　his　army　were　prisoners　of
  the　Germans。　The　Second　Empire　had　come　to　an　end　and　the
  Third　Republic　was　making　ready　to　defend　Paris　against　the
  German　invaders。　Paris　held　out　for　five　long　months。　Ten
  days　before　the　surrender　of　the　city；　in　the　nearby　palace　of
  Versailles；　built　by　that　same　King　Louis　XIV　who　had　been
  such　a　dangerous　enemy　to　the　Germans；　the　King　of　Prussia
  was　publicly　proclaimed　German　Emperor　and　a　loud　booming
  of　guns　told　the　hungry　Parisians　that　a　new　German　Empire
  had　taken　the　place　of　the　old　harmless　Confederation　of　Teutonic
  states　and　stateless。
  In　this　rough　way；　the　German　question　was　finally　settled。
  By　the　end　of　the　year　1871；　fifty…six　years　after　the　memorable
  gathering　at　Vienna；　the　work　of　the　Congress　had　been　entirely
  undone。　Metternich　and　Alexander　and　Talleyrand　had　tried
  to　give　the　people　of　Europe　a　lasting　peace。　The　methods
  they　had　employed　had　caused　endless　wars　and　revolutions　and
  the　feeling　of　a　common　brotherhood　of　the　eighteenth　century
  was　followed　by　an　era　of　exaggerated　nationalism　which　has
  not　yet　come　to　an　end。
  THE　AGE　OF　THE　ENGINE
  BUT　WHILE　THE　PEOPLE　OF　EUROPE　WERE
  FIGHTING　FOR　THEIR　NATIONAL
  INDEPENDENCE；　THE　WORLD　IN　WHICH　THEY
  LIVED　HAD　BEEN　ENTIRELY　CHANGED
  BY　A　SERIES　OF　INVENTIONS；　WHICH　HAD
  MADE　THE　CLUMSY　OLD　STEAM　ENGINE
  OF　THE　18TH　CENTURY　THE　MOST　FAITHFUL
  AND　EFFICIENT　SLAVE　OF　MAN
  THE　greatest　benefactor　of　the　human　race　died　more　than
  half　a　million　years　ago。　He　was　a　hairy　creature　with　a　low
  brow　and　sunken　eyes；　a　heavy　jaw　and　strong　tiger…like　teeth。
  He　would　not　have　looked　well　in　a　gathering　of　modern　scientists；
  but　they　would　have　honoured　him　as　their　master。　For
  he　had　used　a　stone　to　break　a　nut　and　a　stick　to　lift　up　a　heavy
  boulder。　He　was　the　inventor　of　the　hammer　and　the　lever；　our
  first　tools；　and　he　did　more　than　any　human　being　who　came
  after　him　to　give　man　his　enormous　advantage　over　the　other
  animals　with　whom　he　shares　this　planet。
  Ever　since；　man　has　tried　to　make　his　life　easier　by　the　use
  of　a　greater　number　of　tools。　The　first　wheel　（a　round　disc
  made　out　of　an　old　tree）　created　as　much　stir　in　the　communities
  of　100；000　B。C。　as　the　flying　machine　did　only　a　few　years
  ago。
  In　Washington；　the　story　is　told　of　a　director　of　the　Patent
  Office　who　in　the　early　thirties　of　the　last　century　suggested
  that　the　Patent　Office　be　abolished；　because　‘‘everything　that
  possibly　could　be　invented　had　been　invented。''　A　similar
  feeling　must　have　spread　through　the　prehistoric　world　when
  the　first　sail　was　hoisted　on　a　raft　and　the　people　were　able
  to　move　from　place　to　place　without　rowing　or　punting　or
  pulling　from　the　shore。
  Indeed　one　of　the　most　interesting　chapters　of　history　is
  the　effort　of　man　to　let　some　one　else　or　something　else　do　his
  work　for　him；　while　he　enjoyed　his　leisure；　sitting　in　the　sun
  or　painting　pictures　on　rocks；　or　training　young　wolves　and
  little　tigers　to　behave　like　peaceful　domestic　animals。
  Of　course　in　the　very　olden　days；　it　was　always　possible
  to　enslave　a　weaker　neighbour　and　force　him　to　do　the　unpleasant
  tasks　of　life。　One　of　the　reasons　why　the　Greeks　and
  Romans；　who　were　quite　as　intelligent　as　we　are；　failed　to
  devise　more　interesting　machinery；　was　to　be　found　in　the　wide…
  spread　existence　of　slavery。　Why　should　a　great　mathematician
  waste　his　time　upon　wires　and　pulleys　and　cogs　and　fill
  the　air　with　noise　and　smoke　when　he　could　go　to　the　marketplace
  and　buy　all　the　slaves　he　needed　at　a　very　small　expense？
  And　during　the　middle…ages；　although　slavery　had　been
  abolished　and　only　a　mild　form　of　serfdom　survived；　the　guilds
  discouraged　the　idea　of　using　machinery　because　they　thought
  this　would　throw　a　large　number　of　their　brethren　out　of
  work。　Besides；　the　Middle…Ages　were　not　at　all　interested
  in　producing　large　quantities　of　goods。　Their　tailors　and　butchers
  and　carpenters　worked　for　the　immediate　needs　of　the　small
  community　in　which　they　lived　and　had　no　desire　to　compete
  with　their　neighbours；　or　to　produce　more　than　was　strictly
  necessary。
  During　the　Renaissance；　when　the　prejudices　of　the　Church
  against　scientific　investigations　could　no　longer　be　enforced　as
  rigidly　as　before；　a　large　number　of　men　began　to　devote　their
  lives　to　mathematics　and　astronomy　and　physics　and　chemistry。
  Two　years　before　the　beginning　of　the　Thirty　Years　War；
  John　Napier；　a　Scotchman；　had　published　his　little　book　which
  described　the　new　invention　of　logarithms。　During　the　war　it…
  self；　Gottfried　Leibnitz　of　Leipzig　had　perfected　the　system　of
  infinitesimal　calculus。　Eight　years　before　the　peace　of　Westphalia；
  Newton；　the　great　English　natural　philosopher；　was
  born；　and　in　that　same　year　Galileo；　the　Italian　astronomer；
  died。　Meanwhile　the　Thirty　Years　War　had　destroyed　the　prosperity
  of　central　Europe　and　there　was　a　sudden　but　very　general
  interest　in　‘‘alchemy；''　the　strange　pseudo…science　of　the
  middle…ages　by　which　people　hoped　to　turn　base　metals　into
  gold。　This　proved　to　be　impossible　but　the　alchemists　in　their
  laboratories　stumbled　upon　many　new　ideas　and　greatly　helped
  the　work　of　the　chemists　who　were　their　successors。
  The　work　of　all　these　men　provided　the　world　with　a　solid
  scientific　foundation　upon　which　it　was　possible　to　build　even
  the　most　complicated　of　engines；　and　a　number　of　practical
  men　made　good　use　of　it。　The　Middle…Ages　had　used　wood　for
  the　few　bits　of　necessary　machinery。　But　wood　wore　out
  easily。　Iron　was　a　much　better　material　but　iron　was　scarce
  except　in　England。　In　England　therefore　most　of　the　smelting
  was　done。　To　smelt　iron；　huge　fires　were　needed。　In　the
  beginning；　these　fires　had　been　made　of　wood；　but　gradually
  the　forests　had　been　used　up。　Then　‘‘stone　coal''　（the　petrified
  trees　of　prehistoric　times）　was　used。　But　coal　as　you
  know　has　to　be　dug　out　of　the　ground　and　it　has　to　be　transported
  to　the　smelting　ovens　and　the　mines　have　to　be　kept
  dry　from　the　ever　invading　waters。
  These　were　two　problems　which　had　to　be　solved　at　once。
  For　the　time　being；　horses　could　still　be　used　to　haul　the　coal…
  wagons；　but　the　pumping　question　demanded　the　application
  of　special　machinery。　Several　inventors　were　busy　trying　to
  solve　the　difficulty。　They　all　knew　that　steam　would　have　to
  be　used　in　their　new　engine。　The　idea　of　the　steam　engine　was
  very　old。　Hero　of