complete　victory　for　the　Russians　who　‘‘established　order　along
  the　banks　of　the　Vistula''　in　the　well…known　Russian　fashion
  Nicholas　the　first；　who　had　succeeded　his　brother　Alexander　in
  1825；　firmly　believed　in　the　Divine　Right　of　his　own　family；
  and　the　thousands　of　Polish　refugees　who　had　found　shelter
  in　western　Europe　bore　witness　to　the　fact　that　the　principles
  of　the　Holy　Alliance　were　still　more　than　a　hollow　phrase　in
  Holy　Russia。
  In　Italy　too　there　was　a　moment　of　unrest。　Marie　Louise
  Duchess　of　Parma　and　wife　of　the　former　Emperor　Napoleon；
  whom　she　had　deserted　after　the　defeat　of　Waterloo；　was
  driven　away　from　her　country；　and　in　the　Papal　state　the
  exasperated　people　tried　to　establish　an　independent　Republic。
  But　the　armies　of　Austria　marched　to　Rome　and　soon　every
  thing　was　as　of　old。　Metternich　continued　to　reside　at　the　Ball
  Platz；　the　home　of　the　foreign　minister　of　the　Habsburg
  dynasty；　the　police　spies　returned　to　their　job；　and　peace
  reigned　supreme。　Eighteen　more　years　were　to　pass　before　a
  second　and　more　successful　attempt　could　be　made　to　deliver
  Europe　from　the　terrible　inheritance　of　the　Vienna　Congress。
  Again　it　was　France；　the　revolutionary　weather…cock　of
  Europe；　which　gave　the　signal　of　revolt。　Charles　X　had　been
  succeeded　by　Louis　Philippe；　the　son　of　that　famous　Duke　of
  Orleans　who　had　turned　Jacobin；　had　voted　for　the　death　of　his
  cousin　the　king；　and　had　played　a　role　during　the　early　days
  of　the　revolution　under　the　name　of　‘‘Philippe　Egalite''　or
  ‘‘Equality　Philip。''　Eventually　he　had　been　killed　when
  Robespierre　tried　to　purge　the　nation　of　all　‘‘traitors；''　（by
  which　name　he　indicated　those　people　who　did　not　share　his　own
  views）　and　his　son　had　been　forced　to　run　away　from　the
  revolutionary　army。　Young　Louis　Philippe　thereupon　had
  wandered　far　and　wide。　He　had　taught　school　in　Switzerland
  and　had　spent　a　couple　of　years　exploring　the　unknown　‘‘far
  west''　of　America。　After　the　fall　of　Napoleon　he　had　returned
  to　Paris。　He　was　much　more　intelligent　than　his　Bourbon
  cousins。　He　was　a　simple　man　who　went　about　in　the　public
  parks　with　a　red　cotton　umbrella　under　his　arm；　followed　by　a
  brood　of　children　like　any　good　housefather。　But　France　had
  outgrown　the　king　business　and　Louis　did　not　know　this　until
  the　morning　of　the　24th　of　February；　of　the　year　1848；　when
  a　crowd　stormed　the　Tuilleries　and　drove　his　Majesty　away　and
  proclaimed　the　Republic。
  When　the　news　of　this　event　reached　Vienna；　Metternich
  expressed　the　casual　opinion　that　this　was　only　a　repetition
  of　the　year　1793　and　that　the　Allies　would　once　more　be　obliged
  to　march　upon　Paris　and　make　an　end　to　this　very　unseemly
  democratic　row。　But　two　weeks　later　his　own　Austrian　capital
  was　in　open　revolt。　Metternich　escaped　from　the　mob　through
  the　back　door　of　his　palace；　and　the　Emperor　Ferdinand　was
  forced　to　give　his　subjects　a　constitution　which　embodied　most
  of　the　revolutionary　principles　which　his　Prime　Minister　had
  tried　to　suppress　for　the　last　thirty…three　years。
  This　time　all　Europe　felt　the　shock。　Hungary　declared　itself
  independent；　and　commenced　a　war　against　the　Habsburgs
  under　the　leadership　of　Louis　Kossuth。　The　unequal
  struggle　lasted　more　than　a　year。　It　was　finally　suppressed　by
  the　armies　of　Tsar　Nicholas　who　marched　across　the　Carpathian
  mountains　and　made　Hungary　once　more　safe　for　autocracy。
  The　Habsburgs　thereupon　established　extraordinary
  court…martials　and　hanged　the　greater　part　of　the　Hungarian
  patriots　whom　they　had　not　been　able　to　defeat　in　open　battle。
  As　for　Italy；　the　island　of　Sicily　declared　itself　independent
  from　Naples　and　drove　its　Bourbon　king　away。　In　the　Papal
  states　the　prime　minister；　Rossi；　was　murdered　and　the　Pope
  was　forced　to　flee。　He　returned　the　next　year　at　the　head　of　a
  French　army　which　remained　in　Rome　to　protect　His　Holiness
  against　his　subjects　until　the　year　1870。　Then　it　was
  called　back　to　defend　France　against　the　Prussians；　and
  Rome　became　the　capital　of　Italy。　In　the　north；　Milan　and
  Venice　rose　against　their　Austrian　masters。　They　were　supported
  by　king　Albert　of　Sardinia；　but　a　strong　Austrian　army
  under　old　Radetzky　marched　into　the　valley　of　the　Po；　defeated
  the　Sardinians　near　Custozza　and　Novara　and　forced
  Albert　to　abdicate　in　favour　of　his　son；　Victor　Emanuel；　who
  a　few　years　later　was　to　be　the　first　king　of　a　united　Italy。
  In　Germany　the　unrest　of　the　year　1848　took　the　form　of　a
  great　national　demonstration　in　favour　of　political　unity　and　a
  representative　form　of　government。　In　Bavaria；　the　king　who
  had　wasted　his　time　and　money　upon　an　Irish　lady　who　posed　as
  a　Spanish　dancer（she　was　called　Lola　Montez　and　lies　buried
  in　New　York's　Potter's　Field）was　driven　away　by　the　enraged
  students　of　the　university。　In　Prussia；　the　king　was
  forced　to　stand　with　uncovered　head　before　the　coffins　of　those
  who　had　been　killed　during　the　street　fighting　and　to　promise　a
  constitutional　form　of　government。　And　in　March　of　the　year
  1849；　a　German　parliament；　consisting　of　550　delegates　from
  all　parts　of　the　country　came　together　in　Frankfort　and　proposed
  that　king　Frederick　William　of　Prussia　should　be　the
  Emperor　of　a　United　Germany。
  Then；　however；　the　tide　began　to　turn。　Incompetent　Ferdinand
  had　abdicated　in　favour　of　his　nephew　Francis　Joseph。
  The　well…drilled　Austrian　army　had　remained　faithful　to　their
  war…lord。　The　hangman　was　given　plenty　of　work　and　the
  Habsburgs；　after　the　nature　of　that　strangely　cat…like　family；
  once　more　landed　upon　their　feet　and　rapidly　strengthened
  their　position　as　the　masters　of　eastern　and　western　Europe。
  They　played　the　game　of　politics　very　adroitly　and　used　the
  jealousies　of　the　other　German　states　to　prevent　the　elevation
  of　the　Prussian　king　to　the　Imperial　dignity。　Their　long　train…
  ing　in　the　art　of　suffering　defeat　had　taught　them　the　value　of
  patience。　They　knew　how　to　wait。　They　bided　their　time
  and　while　the　liberals；　utterly　untrained　in　practical　politics；
  talked　and　talked　and　talked　and　got　intoxicated　by　their　own
  fine　speeches；　the　Austrians　quietly　gathered　their　forces；　dismissed
  the　Parliament　of　Frankfort　and　re…established　the　old
  and　impossible　German　confederation　which　the　Congress　of
  Vienna　had　wished　upon　an　unsuspecting　world。
  But　among　the　men　who　had　attended　this　strange　Parliament
  of　unpractical　enthusiasts；　there　was　a　Prussian　country
  squire　by　the　name　of　Bismarck；　who　had　made　good　use　of　his
  eyes　and　ears。　He　had　a　deep　contempt　for　oratory。　He　knew
  （what　every　man　of　action　has　always　known）　that　nothing
  is　ever　accomplished　by　talk。　In　his　own　way　he　was　a　sincere
  patriot。　He　had　been　trained　in　the　old　school　of　diplomacy
  and　he　could　outlie　his　opponents　just　as　he　could　outwalk
  them　and　outdrink　them　and　outride　them。
  Bismarck　felt　convinced　that　the　loose　confederation
  of　little　states　must　be　changed　into　a　strong　united　country
  if　it　would　hold　its　own　against　the　other　European　powers。
  Brought　up　amidst　feudal　ideas　of　loyalty；　he　decided　that
  the　house　of　Hohenzollern；　of　which　he　was　the　most　faithful
  servant；　should　rule　the　new　state；　rather　than　the　incompetent
  Habsburgs。　For　this　purpose　he　must　first　get　rid　of　the
  Austrian　influence；　and　he　began　to　make　the　necessary
  preparations　for　this　painful　operation。
  Italy　in　the　meantime　had　solved　her　own　problem；　and　had
  rid　herself　of　her　hated　Austrian　master。　The　unity　of　Italy
  was　the　work　of　three　men；　Cavour；　Mazzini　and　Garibaldi。
  Of　these　three；　Cavour；　the　civil…engineer　with　the　short…sighted
  eyes　and　the　steel…rimmed　glasses；　played　the　part　of　the　careful
  political　pilot。　Mazzini；　who　had　spent　most　of　his　days
  in　different　European　garrets；　hiding　from　the　Austrian　police；
  was　the　public　agitator；　while　Garibaldi；　with　his　band　of　red…
  shirted　rough…riders；　appealed　to　the　popular　imagination。
  Mazzini　and　Garibaldi　were　both　believers　in　the　Republican
  form　of　government。　Cavour；　however；　was　a　monarch…
  ist；　and　the　others　who　recognised　his　superior　ability　in　such
  matters　of　practical　statecraft；　accepted　his　decision　and　sacrificed
  their　own　ambitions　for　the　greater　good　of　their　beloved
  Fatherland。
  Cavour　felt　towards　the　House　of　Sardinia　as　Bismarck
  did　towards　the　Hohenzollern　family。　With　infinite　care　and
  great　shrewdness　he　set　to　work　to　jockey　the　Sardinian　King
  into　a　position　from　which　His　Majesty　would　be　able　to　assume
  the　leadership　of　the　entire　Italian　people。　The　unsettled
  political　conditions　in　the　rest　of　Europe　greatly　helped　him　in
  his　plans　and　no　country　contributed　more　to　the　independence
  of　Italy　than　her　old　and　trusted　（and　often　distrusted）
  neighbour；　France。
  In　that　turbulent　country；　in　November　of　the　year　1852；
  the　Republic　had　come　to　a　sudden　but　not　unexpected　end。
  Napoleon　III　the　son　of　Louis　Bonaparte