had　taught　not　only　Europe　but　America　as　well；　was　the
  right　of　people　to　their　own　‘‘nationality。''
  Napoleon；　who　respected　nothing　and　nobody；　was　utterly
  ruthless　in　his　dealing　with　national　and　patriotic　aspirations。
  But　the　early　revolutionary　generals　had　proclaimed　the　new
  doctrine　that　‘‘nationality　was　not　a　matter　of　political
  frontiers　or　round　skulls　and　broad　noses；　but　a　matter　of　the
  heart　and　soul。''　While　they　were　teaching　the　French　children
  the　greatness　of　the　French　nation；　they　encouraged　Spaniards
  and　Hollanders　and　Italians　to　do　the　same　thing。　Soon
  these　people；　who　all　shared　Rousseau's　belief　in　the　superior
  virtues　of　Original　Man；　began　to　dig　into　their　past　and　found；
  buried　beneath　the　ruins　of　the　feudal　system；　the　bones　of　the
  mighty　races　of　which　they　supposed　themselves　the　feeble
  descendants。
  The　first　half　of　the　nineteenth　century　was　the　era　of　the
  great　historical　discoveries。　Everywhere　historians　were　busy
  publishing　mediaeval　charters　and　early　mediaeval　chronicles
  and　in　every　country　the　result　was　a　new　pride　in　the　old
  fatherland。　A　great　deal　of　this　sentiment　was　based　upon　the
  wrong　interpretation　of　historical　facts。　But　in　practical　politics；
  it　does　not　matter　what　is　true；　but　everything　depends
  upon　what　the　people　believe　to　be　true。　And　in　most　countries
  both　the　kings　and　their　subjects　firmly　believed　in　the　glory
  and　fame　of　their　ancestors。
  The　Congress　of　Vienna　was　not　inclined　to　be　sentimental。
  Their　Excellencies　divided　the　map　of　Europe　according　to　the
  best　interests　of　half　a　dozen　dynasties　and　put　‘‘national
  aspirations''　upon　the　Index；　or　list　of　forbidden　books；　together
  with　all　other　dangerous　‘‘French　doctrines。''
  But　history　is　no　respecter　of　Congresses。　For　some　reason
  or　other　（it　may　be　an　historical　law；　which　thus　far　has
  escaped　the　attention　of　the　scholars）　‘‘nations''　seemed　to　be
  necessary　for　the　orderly　development　of　human　society　and
  the　attempt　to　stem　this　tide　was　quite　as　unsuccessful　as　the
  Metternichian　effort　to　prevent　people　from　thinking。
  Curiously　enough　the　first　trouble　began　in　a　very　distant
  part　of　the　world；　in　South　America。　The　Spanish　colonies
  of　that　continent　had　been　enjoying　a　period　of　relative　independence
  during　the　many　years　of　the　great　Napoleonic　wars。
  They　had　even　remained　faithful　to　their　king　when　he　was
  taken　prisoner　by　the　French　Emperor　and　they　had　refused
  to　recognise　Joseph　Bonaparte；　who　had　in　the　year　1808　been
  made　King　of　Spain　by　order　of　his　brother。
  Indeed；　the　only　part　of　America　to　get　very　much　upset
  by　the　Revolution　was　the　island　of　Haiti；　the　Espagnola　of
  Columbus'　first　trip。　Here　in　the　year　1791　the　French　Convention；
  in　a　sudden　outburst　of　love　and　human　brotherhood；
  had　bestowed　upon　their　black　brethren　all　the　privileges　hitherto
  enjoyed　by　their　white　masters。　Just　as　suddenly　they　had
  repented　of　this　step；　but　the　attempt　to　undo　the　original
  promise　led　to　many　years　of　terrible　warfare　between　General
  Leclerc；　the　brother…in…law　of　Napoleon；　and　Toussaint　l'Ouverture；
  the　negro　chieftain。　In　the　year　1801；　Toussaint　was
  asked　to　visit　Leclerc　and　discuss　terms　of　peace。　He　received
  the　solemn　promise　that　he　would　not　be　molested。　He　trusted
  his　white　adversaries；　was　put　on　board　a　ship　and　shortly
  afterwards　died　in　a　French　prison。　But　the　negroes　gained
  their　independence　all　the　same　and　founded　a　Republic。
  Incidentally　they　were　of　great　help　to　the　first　great　South
  American　patriot　in　his　efforts　to　deliver　his　native　country
  from　the　Spanish　yoke。
  Simon　Bolivar；　a　native　of　Caracas　in　Venezuela；　born　in
  the　year　1783；　had　been　educated　in　Spain；　had　visited　Paris
  where　he　had　seen　the　Revolutionary　government　at　work；　had
  lived　for　a　while　in　the　United　States　and　had　returned　to　his
  native　land　where　the　widespread　discontent　against　Spain；
  the　mother　country；　was　beginning　to　take　a　definite　form。
  In　the　year　1811；　Venezuela　declared　its　independence　and
  Bolivar　became　one　of　the　revolutionary　generals。　Within
  two　months；　the　rebels　were　defeated　and　Bolivar　fled。
  For　the　next　five　years　he　was　the　leader　of　an　apparently
  lost　cause。　He　sacrificed　all　his　wealth　and　he　would　not　have
  been　able　to　begin　his　final　and　successful　expedition　without
  the　support　of　the　President　of　Haiti。　Thereafter　the　revolt
  spread　all　over　South　America　and　soon　it　appeared　that　Spain
  was　not　able　to　suppress　the　rebellion　unaided。　She　asked　for
  the　support　of　the　Holy　Alliance。
  This　step　greatly　worried　England。　The　British　shippers
  had　succeeded　the　Dutch　as　the　Common　Carriers　of　the　world
  and　they　expected　to　reap　heavy　profits　from　a　declaration　of
  independence　on　the　part　of　all　South　America。　They　had
  hopes　that　the　United　States　o？America　would　interfere　but
  the　Senate　had　no　such　plans　and　in　the　House；　too；　there　were
  many　voices　which　declared　that　Spain　ought　to　be　given　a
  free　hand。
  Just　then；　there　was　a　change　of　ministers　in　England。
  The　Whigs　went　out　and　the　Tories　came　in。　George　Canning
  became　secretary　of　State。　He　dropped　a　hint　that　England
  would　gladly　back　up　the　American　government　with　all　the
  might　of　her　fleet；　if　said　government　would　declare　its
  disapproval　of　the　plans　of　the　Holy　Alliance　in　regard　to　the
  rebellious　colonies　of　the　southern　continent。　President　Monroe
  thereupon；　on　the　2nd　of　December　of　the　year　1823；　addressed
  Congress　and　stated　that：　‘‘America　would　consider
  any　attempt　on　the　part　of　the　allied　powers　to　extend　their
  system　to　any　portion　of　this　western　hemisphere　as　dangerous
  to　our　peace　and　safety；''　and　gave　warning　that　‘‘the　American
  government　would　consider　such　action　on　the　part　of　the
  Holy　Alliance　as　a　manifestation　of　an　unfriendly　disposition
  toward　the　United　States。''　Four　weeks　later；　the　text　of　the
  ‘‘Monroe　Doctrine''　was　printed　in　the　English　newspapers　and
  the　members　of　the　Holy　Alliance　were　forced　to　make　their
  choice。
  Metternich　hesitated。　Personally　he　would　have　been　willing
  to　risk　the　displeasure　of　the　United　States　（which　had
  allowed　both　its　army　and　navy　to　fall　into　neglect　since　the　end
  of　the　Anglo…American　war　of　the　year　1812。）　But　Canning's
  threatening　attitude　and　trouble　on　the　continent　forced　him
  to　be　careful。　The　expedition　never　took　place　and　South
  America　and　Mexico　gained　their　independence。
  As　for　the　troubles　on　the　continent　of　Europe；　they　were
  coming　fast　and　furious。　The　Holy　Alliance　had　sent　French
  troops　to　Spain　to　act　as　guardians　of　the　peace　in　the　year
  1820。　Austrian　troops　had　been　used　for　a　similar　purpose　in
  Italy　when　the　‘‘Carbonari''　（the　secret　society　of　the　Charcoal
  Burners）　were　making　propaganda　for　a　united　Italy　and　had
  caused　a　rebellion　against　the　unspeakable　Ferdinand　of
  Naples。
  Bad　news　also　came　from　Russia　where　the　death　of　Alexander
  had　been　the　sign　for　a　revolutionary　outbreak　in　St。
  Petersburg；　a　short　but　bloody　upheaval；　the　so…called　Dekaberist
  revolt　（because　it　took　place　in　December；）　which　ended
  with　the　hanging　of　a　large　number　of　good　patriots　who　had
  been　disgusted　by　the　reaction　of　Alexander's　last　years　and
  had　tried　to　give　Russia　a　constitutional　form　of　government。
  But　worse　was　to　follow。　Metternich　had　tried　to　assure
  himself　of　the　continued　support　of　the　European　courts　by　a
  series　of　conferences　at　Aix…la…Chapelle　at　Troppau　at
  Laibach　and　finally　at　Verona。　The　delegates　from　the
  different　powers　duly　travelled　to　these　agreeable　watering
  places　where　the　Austrian　prime　minister　used　to　spend
  his　summers。　They　always　promised　to　do　their　best
  to　suppress　revolt　but　they　were　none　too　certain　of　their
  success。　The　spirit　of　the　people　was　beginning　to　be　ugly　and
  especially　in　France　the　position　of　the　king　was　by　no　means
  satisfactory。
  The　real　trouble　however　began　in　the　Balkans；　the　gateway
  to　western　Europe　through　which　the　invaders　of　that
  continent　had　passed　since　the　beginning　of　time。　The　first
  outbreak　was　in　Moldavia；　the　ancient　Roman　province　of
  Dacia　which　had　been　cut　off　from　the　Empire　in　the　third
  century。　Since　then；　it　had　been　a　lost　land；　a　sort　of　Atlantis；
  where　the　people　had　continued　to　speak　the　old　Roman　tongue
  and　still　called　themselves　Romans　and　their　country　Roumania。
  Here　in　the　year　1821；　a　young　Greek；　Prince　Alexander
  Ypsilanti；　began　a　revolt　against　the　Turks。　He　told　his　followers
  that　they　could　count　upon　the　support　of　Russia。　But
  Metternich's　fast　couriers　were　soon　on　their　way　to　St　Petersburg
  and　the　Tsar；　entirely　persuaded　by　the　Austrian　arguments
  in　favor　of　‘‘peace　and　stability；''　refused　to　help。　Ypsilanti
  was　forced　to　flee　to　Austria　where　he　spent　the　next　seven
  years　in　prison。
  In　the　same　year；　1821；　trouble　began　in　Greece。　Since
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