the　Grace　of　God。　The　rulers　of　three　others；　Bavaria；　Saxony
  and　Wurtemberg；　were　kings　by　the　Grace　of　Napoleon；　and
  as　they　had　been　the　faithful　henchmen　of　the　Emperor；　their
  patriotic　credit　with　the　other　Germans　was　therefore　not　very
  good。
  The　Congress　had　established　a　new　German　Confederation；
  a　league　of　thirty…eight　sovereign　states；　under　the　chairmanship
  of　the　King　of　Austria；　who　was　now　known　as　the
  Emperor　of　Austria。　It　was　the　sort　of　make…shift　arrangement
  which　satisfied　no　one。　It　is　true　that　a　German　Diet；
  which　met　in　the　old　coronation　city　of　Frankfort。　had　been
  created　to　discuss　matters　of　‘‘common　policy　and　importance。''
  But　in　this　Diet；　thirty…eight　delegates　represented　thirty…eight
  different　interests　and　as　no　decision　could　be　taken　without　a
  unanimous　vote　（a　parliamentary　rule　which　had　in　previous
  centuries　ruined　the　mighty　kingdom　of　Poland）；　the　famous
  German　Confederation　became　very　soon　the　laughing　stock
  of　Europe　and　the　politics　of　the　old　Empire　began　to　resemble
  those　of　our　Central　American　neighbours　in　the　forties　and
  the　fifties　of　the　last　century。
  It　was　terribly　humiliating　to　the　people　who　had　sacrificed
  everything　for　a　national　ideal。　But　the　Congress　was　not
  interested　in　the　private　feelings　of　‘‘subjects；''　and　the　debate
  was　closed。
  Did　anybody　object？　Most　assuredly。　As　soon　as　the　first
  feeling　of　hatred　against　Napoleon　had　quieted　downas　soon
  as　the　enthusiasm　of　the　great　war　had　subsidedas　soon　as
  the　people　came　to　a　full　realisation　of　the　crime　that　had　been
  committed　in　the　name　of　‘‘peace　and　stability''　they　began　to
  murmur。　They　even　made　threats　of　open　revolt。　But　what
  could　they　do？　They　were　powerless。　They　were　at　the　mercy
  of　the　most　pitiless　and　efficient　police　system　the　world　had
  ever　seen。
  The　members　of　the　Congress　of　Vienna　honestly　and　sincerely
  believed　that　‘‘the　Revolutionary　Principle　had　led　to
  the　criminal　usurpation　of　the　throne　by　the　former　emperor
  Napoleon。''　They　felt　that　they　were　called　upon　to　eradicate
  the　adherents　of　the　so…called　‘‘French　ideas''　just　as　Philip　II
  had　only　followed　the　voice　of　his　conscience　when　he　burned
  Protestants　or　hanged　Moors。　In　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth
  century　a　man　who　did　not　believe　in　the　divine　right
  of　the　Pope　to　rule　his　subjects　as　he　saw　fit　was　a　‘‘heretic''
  and　it　was　the　duty　of　all　loyal　citizens　to　kill　him。　In　the
  beginning　of　the　nineteenth　century；　on　the　continent　of　Europe；
  a　man　who　did　not　believe　in　the　divine　right　of　his　king　to
  rule　him　as　he　or　his　Prime　Minister　saw　fit；　was　a　‘‘heretic；''　and
  it　was　the　duty　of　all　loyal　citizens　to　denounce　him　to　the　nearest
  policeman　and　see　that　he　got　punished。
  But　the　rulers　of　the　year　1815　had　learned　efficiency　in
  the　school　of　Napoleon　and　they　performed　their　task　much
  better　than　it　had　been　done　in　the　year　1517。　The　period
  between　the　year　1815　and　the　year　1860　was　the　great　era　of
  the　political　spy。　Spies　were　everywhere。　They　lived　in　palaces
  and　they　were　to　be　found　in　the　lowest　gin…shops。　They
  peeped　through　the　key…holes　of　the　ministerial　cabinet　and
  they　listened　to　the　conversations　of　the　people　who　were　taking
  the　air　on　the　benches　of　the　Municipal　Park。　They　guarded
  the　frontier　so　that　no　one　might　leave　without　a　duly　viseed
  passport　and　they　inspected　all　packages；　that　no　books　with
  dangerous　‘‘French　ideas''　should　enter　the　realm　of　their
  Royal　masters。　They　sat　among　the　students　in　the　lecture
  hall　and　woe　to　the　Professor　who　uttered　a　word　against　the
  existing　order　of　things。　They　followed　the　little　boys　and
  girls　on　their　way　to　church　lest　they　play　hookey。
  In　many　of　these　tasks　they　were　assisted　by　the　clergy。
  The　church　had　suffered　greatly　during　the　days　of　the
  revolution。　The　church　property　had　been　confiscated。　Several
  priests　had　been　killed　and　the　generation　that　had　learned　its
  cathechism　from　Voltaire　and　Rousseau　and　the　other　French
  philosophers　had　danced　around　the　Altar　of　Reason　when
  the　Committee　of　Public　Safety　had　abolished　the　worship　of
  God　in　October　of　the　year　1793。　The　priests　had　followed　the
  ‘‘emigres''　into　their　long　exile。　Now　they　returned　in　the
  wake　of　the　allied　armies　and　they　set　to　work　with　a　vengeance。
  Even　the　Jesuits　came　back　in　1814　and　resumed　their
  former　labours　of　educating　the　young。　Their　order　had　been
  a　little　too　successful　in　its　fight　against　the　enemies　of　the
  church。　It　had　established　‘‘provinces''　in　every　part　of　the
  world；　to　teach　the　natives　the　blessings　of　Christianity；　but
  soon　it　had　developed　into　a　regular　trading　company　which
  was　for　ever　interfering　with　the　civil　authorities。　During　the
  reign　of　the　Marquis　de　Pombal；　the　great　reforming　minister
  of　Portugal；　they　had　been　driven　out　of　the　Portuguese　lands
  and　in　the　year　1773　at　the　request　of　most　of　the　Catholic
  powers　of　Europe；　the　order　had　been　suppressed　by　Pope
  Clement　XIV。　Now　they　were　back　on　the　job；　and　preached
  the　principles　of　‘‘obedience''　and　‘‘love　for　the　legitimate
  dynasty''　to　children　whose　parents　had　hired　shopwindows　that
  they　might　laugh　at　Marie　Antoinette　driving　to　the　scaffold
  which　was　to　end　her　misery。
  But　in　the　Protestant　countries　like　Prussia；　things　were
  not　a　whit　better。　The　great　patriotic　leaders　of　the　year　1812；
  the　poets　and　the　writers　who　had　preached　a　holy　war　upon　the
  usurper；　were　now　branded　as　dangerous　‘‘demagogues。''　Their
  houses　were　searched。　Their　letters　were　read。　They　were
  obliged　to　report　to　the　police　at　regular　intervals　and　give　an
  account　of　themselves。　The　Prussian　drill　master　was　let　loose
  in　all　his　fury　upon　the　younger　generation。　When　a　party　of
  students　celebrated　the　tercentenary　of　the　Reformation　with
  noisy　but　harmless　festivities　on　the　old　Wartburg；　the　Prussian
  bureaucrats　had　visions　of　an　imminent　revolution。　When
  a　theological　student；　more　honest　than　intelligent；　killed　a
  Russian　government　spy　who　was　operating　in　Germany；　the
  universities　were　placed　under　police…supervision　and　professors
  were　jailed　or　dismissed　without　any　form　of　trial。
  Russia；　of　course；　was　even　more　absurd　in　these　anti…
  revolutionary　activities。　Alexander　had　recovered　from　his　attack
  of　piety。　He　was　gradually　drifting　toward　melancholia。　He
  well　knew　his　own　limited　abilities　and　understood　how　at
  Vienna　he　had　been　the　victim　both　of　Metternich　and　the
  Krudener　woman。　More　and　more　he　turned　his　back　upon　the
  west　and　became　a　truly　Russian　ruler　whose　interests　lay　in
  Constantinople；　the　old　holy　city　that　had　been　the　first　teacher
  of　the　Slavs。　The　older　he　grew；　the　harder　he　worked　and　the
  less　he　was　able　to　accomplish。　And　while　he　sat　in　his　study；
  his　ministers　turned　the　whole　of　Russia　into　a　land　of　military
  barracks。
  It　is　not　a　pretty　picture。　Perhaps　I　might　have　shortened
  this　description　of　the　Great　Reaction。　But　it　is　just　as　well
  that　you　should　have　a　thorough　knowledge　of　this　era。　It　was
  not　the　first　time　that　an　attempt　had　been　made　to　set　the
  clock　of　history　back。　The　result　was　the　usual　one。
  NATIONAL　INDEPENDENCE
  THE　LOVE　OF　NATIONAL　INDEPENDENCE；
  HOWEVER　WAS　TOO　STRONG　TO　BE
  DESTROYED　IN　THIS　WAY。　THE　SOUTH
  AMERICANS　WERE　THE　FIRST　TO　REBEL
  AGAINST　THE　REACTIONARY　MEASURES
  OF　THE　CONGRESS　OF　VIENNA；　GREECE
  AND　BELGIUM　AND　SPAIN　AND　A　LARGE
  NUMBER　OF　OTHER　COUNTRIES　OF　THE
  EUROPEAN　CONTINENT　FOLLOWED　SUIT
  AND　THE　NINETEENTH　CENTURY　WAS
  FILLED　WITH　THE　RUMOUR　OF　MANY
  WARS　OF　INDEPENDENCE
  IT　will　serve　no　good　purpose　to　say　‘‘if　only　the　Congress
  of　Vienna　had　done　such　and　such　a　thing　instead　of　taking
  such　and　such　a　course；　the　history　of　Europe　in　the　nineteenth
  century　would　have　been　different。''　The　Congress　of　Vienna
  was　a　gathering　of　men　who　had　just　passed　through　a　great
  revolution　and　through　twenty　years　of　terrible　and　almost
  continuous　warfare。　They　came　together　for　the　purpose　of
  giving　Europe　that　‘‘peace　and　stability''　which　they　thought
  that　the　people　needed　and　wanted。　They　were　what　we　call
  reactionaries。　They　sincerely　believed　in　the　inability　of　the
  mass　of　the　people　to　rule　themselves。　They　re…arranged　the
  map　of　Europe　in　such　a　way　as　seemed　to　promise　the　greatest
  possibility　of　a　lasting　success。　They　failed；　but　not　through
  any　premeditated　wickedness　on　their　part。　They　were；　for　the
  greater　part；　men　of　the　old　school　who　remembered　the　happier
  days　of　their　quiet　youth　and　ardently　wished　a　return　of　that
  blessed　period。　They　failed　to　recognise　the　strong　hold　which
  many　of　the　revolutionary　principles　had　gained　upon　the　people
  of　the　European　continent。　That　was　a　misfortune　but
  hardly　a　sin。　But　one　of　the　things　which　the　French　Revolution
  had　taught　not　only　Europe　but　America　as　well；　was　the
  rig