great　wars　of　liberation　of　the　years　1812；　1818；　1814　and
  1815　had　begun　to　wear　off。　It　had　been　followed　by　a　sincere
  belief　in　the　coming　of　a　happier　day。　The　soldiers　who　had
  borne　the　brunt　of　the　battle　wanted　peace　and　they　said　so。
  But　they　did　not　want　the　sort　of　peace　which　the　Holy
  Alliance　and　the　Council　of　the　European　powers　had　now
  bestowed　upon　them。　They　cried　that　they　had　been　betrayed。
  But　they　were　careful　lest　they　be　heard　by　a　secret…police　spy。
  The　reaction　was　victorious。　It　was　a　reaction　caused　by　men
  who　sincerely　believed　that　their　methods　were　necessary　for
  the　good　of　humanity。　But　it　was　just　as　hard　to　bear　as　if
  their　intentions　had　been　less　kind。　And　it　caused　a　great　deal
  of　unnecessary　suffering　and　greatly　retarded　the　orderly
  progress　of　political　development。
  THE　GREAT　REACTION
  THEY　TRIED　TO　ASSURE　THE　WORLD　AN　ERA
  OF　UNDISTURBED　PEACE　BY　SUPPRESSING
  ALL　NEW　IDEAS。　THEY　MADE　THE
  POLICE…SPY　THE　HIGHEST　FUNCTIONARY
  IN　THE　STATE　AND　SOON　THE　PRISONS
  OF　ALL　COUNTRIES　WERE　FILLED　WITH
  THOSE　WHO　CLAIMED　THAT　PEOPLE
  HAVE　THE　RIGHT　TO　GOVERN　THEMSELVES
  AS　THEY　SEE　FIT
  To　undo　the　damage　done　by　the　great　Napoleonic　flood
  was　almost　impossible。　Age…old　fences　had　been　washed　away。
  The　palaces　of　two　score　dynasties　had　been　damaged　to　such
  an　extent　that　they　had　to　be　condemned　as　uninhabitable。
  Other　royal　residences　had　been　greatly　enlarged　at　the　expense
  of　less　fortunate　neighbours。　Strange　odds　and　ends
  of　revolutionary　doctrine　had　been　left　behind　by　the　receding
  waters　and　could　not　be　dislodged　without　danger　to　the　entire
  community。　But　the　political　engineers　of　the　Congress　did
  the　best　they　could　and　this　is　what　they　accomplished。
  France　had　disturbed　the　peace　of　the　world　for　so　many
  years　that　people　had　come　to　fear　that　country　almost
  instinctively。　The　Bourbons；　through　the　mouth　of　Talleyrand；
  had　promised　to　be　good；　but　the　Hundred　Days　had　taught
  Europe　what　to　expect　should　Napoleon　manage　to　escape　for
  a　second　time。　The　Dutch　Republic；　therefore；　was　changed
  into　a　Kingdom；　and　Belgium　（which　had　not　joined　the　Dutch
  struggle　for　independence　in　the　sixteenth　century　and　since
  then　had　been　part　of　the　Habsburg　domains；　firs　t　under　Spanish
  rule　and　thereafter　under　Austrian　rule）　was　made　part
  of　this　new　kingdom　of　the　Netherlands。　Nobody　wanted　this
  union　either　in　the　Protestant　North　or　in　the　Catholic　South；
  but　no　questions　were　asked。　It　seemed　good　for　the　peace
  of　Europe　and　that　was　the　main　consideration。
  Poland　had　hoped　for　great　things　because　a　Pole；　Prince
  Adam　Czartoryski；　was　one　of　the　most　intimate　friends　of
  Tsar　Alexander　and　had　been　his　constant　advisor　during　the
  war　and　at　the　Congress　of　Vienna。　But　Poland　was　made　a
  semi…independent　part　of　Russia　with　Alexander　as　her　king。
  This　solution　pleased　no　one　and　caused　much　bitter　feeling
  and　three　revolutions。
  Denmark；　which　had　remained　a　faithful　ally　of　Napoleon
  until　the　end；　was　severely　punished。　Seven　years　before；　an
  English　fleet　had　sailed　down　the　Kattegat　and　without　a
  declaration　of　war　or　any　warning　had　bombarded　Copenhagen
  and　had　taken　away　the　Danish　fleet；　lest　it　be　of　value　to
  Napoleon。　The　Congress　of　Vienna　went　one　step　further。
  It　took　Norway　（which　since　the　union　of　Calmar　of　the　year
  1397　had　been　united　with　Denmark）　away　from　Denmark
  and　gave　it　to　Charles　XIV　of　Sweden　as　a　reward　for　his　betrayal
  of　Napoleon；　who　had　set　him　up　in　the　king　business。
  This　Swedish　king；　curiously　enough；　was　a　former　French　general
  by　the　name　of　Bernadotte；　who　had　come　to　Sweden　as　one
  of　Napolean's｛sic｝　adjutants；　and　had　been　invited　to　the　throne　of
  that　good　country　when　the　last　of　the　rulers　of　the　house　of
  Hollstein…Gottorp　had　died　without　leaving　either　son　or
  daughter。　From　1815　until　1844　he　ruled　his　adopted　country
  （the　language　of　which　he　never　learned）　width　great　ability。　He
  was　a　clever　man　and　enjoyed　the　respect　of　both　his　Swedish
  and　his　Norwegian　subjects；　but　he　did　not　succeed　in　joining
  two　countries　which　nature　and　history　had　put　asunder。　The
  dual　Scandinavian　state　was　never　a　success　and　in　1905；
  Norway；　in　a　most　peaceful　and　orderly　manner；　set　up　as　an
  independent　kingdom　and　the　Swedes　bade　her　‘‘good　speed''
  and　very　wisely　let　her　go　her　own　way。
  The　Italians；　who　since　the　days　of　the　Renaissance　had
  been　at　the　mercy　of　a　long　series　of　invaders；　also　had　put
  great　hopes　in　General　Bonaparte。　The　Emperor　Napoleon；
  however；　had　grievously　disappointed　them。　Instead　of　the
  United　Italy　which　the　people　wanted；　they　had　been　divided
  into　a　number　of　little　principalities；　duchies；　republics　and
  the　Papal　State；　which　（next　to　Naples）　was　the　worst　governed
  and　most　miserable　region　of　the　entire　peninsula。　The
  Congress　of　Vienna　abolished　a　few　of　the　Napoleonic　republics
  and　in　their　place　resurrected　several　old　principalities
  which　were　given　to　deserving　members；　both　male　and　female；
  of　the　Habsburg　family。
  The　poor　Spaniards；　who　had　started　the　great　nationalistic
  revolt　against　Napoleon；　and　who　had　sacrificed　the　best　blood
  of　the　country　for　their　king；　were　punished　severely　when　the
  Congress　allowed　His　Majesty　to　return　to　his　domains。　This
  vicious　creature；　known　as　Ferdinand　VII；　had　spent　the　last
  four　years　of　his　life　as　a　prisoner　of　Napoleon。　He　had　improved
  his　days　by　knitting　garments　for　the　statues　of　his
  favourite　patron　saints。　He　celebrated　his　return　by　re…introducing
  the　Inquisition　and　the　torture…chamber；　both　of　which
  had　been　abolished　by　the　Revolution。　He　was　a　disgusting
  person；　despised　as　much　by　his　subjects　as　by　his　four　wives；
  but　the　Holy　Alliance　maintained　him　upon　his　legitimate
  throne　and　all　efforts　of　the　decent　Spaniards　to　get　rid　of　this
  curse　and　make　Spain　a　constitutional　kingdom　ended　in
  bloodshed　and　executions。
  Portugal　had　been　without　a　king　since　the　year　1807　when
  the　royal　family　had　fled　to　the　colonies　in　Brazil。　The　country
  had　been　used　as　a　base　of　supply　for　the　armies　of
  Wellington　during　the　Peninsula　war；　which　lasted　from　1808
  until　1814。　After　1815　Portugal　continued　to　be　a　sort　of
  British　province　until　the　house　of　Braganza　returned　to　the
  throne；　leaving　one　of　its　members　behind　in　Rio　de　Janeiro
  as　Emperor　of　Brazil；　the　only　American　Empire　which　lasted
  for　more　than　a　few　years；　and　which　came　to　an　end　in　1889
  when　the　country　became　a　republic。
  In　the　east；　nothing　was　done　to　improve　the　terrible　conditions
  of　both　the　Slavs　and　the　Greeks　who　were　still　subjects
  of　the　Sultan。　In　the　year　1804　Black　George；　a　Servian
  swineherd；　（the　founder　of　the　Karageorgevich　dynasty）　had
  started　a　revolt　against　the　Turks；　but　he　had　been　defeated
  by　his　enemies　and　had　been　murdered　by　one　of　his　supposed
  friends；　the　rival　Servian　leader；　called　Milosh　Obrenovich；
  （who　became　the　founder　of　the　Obrenovich　dynasty）　and　the
  Turks　had　continued　to　be　the　undisputed　masters　of　the
  Balkans。
  The　Greeks；　who　since　the　loss　of　their　independence；　two
  thousand　years　before；　had　been　subjects　of　the　Macedonians；
  the　Romans；　the　Venetians　and　the　Turks；　had　hoped　that　their
  countryman；　Capo　d'Istria；　a　native　of　Corfu　and　together
  with　Czartoryski；　the　most　intimate　personal　friends　of
  Alexander；　would　do　something　for　them。　But　the　Congress
  of　Vienna　was　not　interested　in　Greeks；　but　was　very　much
  interested　in　keeping　all　‘‘legitimate''　monarchs；　Christian；
  Moslem　and　otherwise；　upon　their　respective　thrones。　Therefore
  nothing　was　done。
  The　last；　but　perhaps　the　greatest　blunder　of　the　Congress
  was　the　treatment　of　Germany。　The　Reformation　and　the
  Thirty　Years　War　had　not　only　destroyed　the　prosperity　of　the
  country；　but　had　turned　it　into　a　hopeless　political　rubbish
  heap；　consisting　of　a　couple　of　kingdoms；　a　few　grand…duchies；
  a　large　number　of　duchies　and　hundreds　of　margravates；　principalities；
  baronies；　electorates；　free　cities　and　free　villages；
  ruled　by　the　strangest　assortment　of　potentates　that　was　ever
  seen　off　the　comic　opera　stage。　Frederick　the　Great　had
  changed　this　when　he　created　a　strong　Prussia；　but　this　state
  had　not　survived　him　by　many　years。
  Napoleon　had　blue…penciled　the　demand　for　independence
  of　most　of　these　little　countries；　and　only　fifty…two　out　of　a
  total　of　more　than　three　hundred　had　survived　the　year　1806。
  During　the　years　of　the　great　struggle　for　independence；　many
  a　young　soldier　had　dreamed　of　a　new　Fatherland　that　should
  be　strong　and　united。　But　there　can　be　no　union　without　a
  strong　leadership；　and　who　was　to　be　this　leader？
  There　were　five　kingdoms　in　the　German　speaking　lands。
  The　rulers　of　two　of　these；　Austria　and　Prussia；　were　kings　by
  the　Grace　of　God。　The　rulers　of　three　others；　Bavaria；　Saxony
  and　Wurt