These　pleasant　but　careless　people　played　with　the　dangerous
  fireworks　of　social　criticism　until　the　sparks　fell　through
  the　cracks　of　the　floor；　which　was　old　and　rotten　just
  like　the　rest　of　the　building。　Those　sparks　unfortunately
  landed　in　the　basement　where　age…old　rubbish　lay　in　great
  confusion。　Then　there　was　a　cry　of　fire。　But　the　owner　of
  the　house　who　was　interested　in　everything　except　the　management
  of　his　property；　did　not　know　how　to　put　the　small　blaze
  out。　The　flame　spread　rapidly　and　the　entire　edifice　was　consumed
  by　the　conflagration；　which　we　call　the　Great　French　Revolution。
  For　the　sake　of　convenience；　we　can　divide　the　French
  Revolution　into　two　parts。　From　1789　to　1791　there　was　a
  more　or　less　orderly　attempt　to　introduce　a　constitutional
  monarchy。　This　failed；　partly　through　lack　of　good　faith　and
  stupidity　on　the　part　of　the　monarch　himself；　partly　through
  circumstances　over　which　nobody　had　any　control。
  From　1792　to　1799　there　was　a　Republic　and　a　first　effort
  to　establish　a　democratic　form　of　government。　But　the　actual
  outbreak　of　violence　had　been　preceded　by　many　years　of
  unrest　and　many　sincere　but　ineffectual　attempts　at　reform。
  When　France　had　a　debt　of　4000　million　francs　and　the
  treasury　was　always　empty　and　there　was　not　a　single　thing
  upon　which　new　taxes　could　be　levied；　even　good　King　Louis
  （who　was　an　expert　locksmith　and　a　great　hunter　but　a　very
  poor　statesman）　felt　vaguely　that　something　ought　to　be　done。
  Therefore　he　called　for　Turgot；　to　be　his　Minister　of　Finance。
  Anne　Robert　Jacques　Turgot；　Baron　de　l'Aulne；　a　man　in　the
  early　sixties；　a　splendid　representative　of　the　fast　disappearing
  class　of　landed　gentry；　had　been　a　successful　governor　of　a
  province　and　was　an　amateur　political　economist　of　great　ability。
  He　did　his　best。　Unfortunately；　he　could　not　perform
  miracles。　As　it　was　impossible　to　squeeze　more　taxes　out　of
  the　ragged　peasants；　it　was　necessary　to　get　the　necessary　funds
  from　the　nobility　and　clergy　who　had　never　paid　a　centime。
  This　made　Turgot　the　best　hated　man　at　the　court　of　Versailles。
  Furthermore　he　was　obliged　to　face　the　enmity　of　Marie
  Antoinette；　the　queen；　who　was　against　everybody　who　dared
  to　mention　the　word　‘‘economy''　within　her　hearing。　Soon
  Turgot　was　called　an　‘‘unpractical　visionary''　and　a　‘‘theoretical…
  professor''　and　then　of　course　his　position　became　untenable。
  In　the　year　1776　he　was　forced　to　resign。
  After　the　‘‘professor''　there　came　a　man　of　Practical　Business
  Sense。　He　was　an　industrious　Swiss　by　the　name　of
  Necker　who　had　made　himself　rich　as　a　grain　speculator　and
  the　partner　in　an　international　banking　house。　His　ambitious
  wife　had　pushed　him　into　the　government　service　that　she
  might　establish　a　position　for　her　daughter　who　afterwards　as
  the　wife　of　the　Swedish　minister　in　Paris；　Baron　de　Stael；
  became　a　famous　literary　figure　of　the　early　nineteenth　century。
  Necker　set　to　work　with　a　fine　display　of　zeal　just　as　Turgot
  had　done。　In　1781　he　published　a　careful　review　of　the　French
  finances。　The　king　understood　nothing　of　this　‘‘Compte
  Rendu。''　He　had　just　sent　troops　to　America　to　help　the　colonists
  against　their　common　enemies；　the　English。　This　expedition
  proved　to　be　unexpectedly　expensive　and　Necker　was
  asked　to　find　the　necessary　funds。　When　instead　of　producing
  revenue；　he　published　more　figures　and　made　statistics
  and　began　to　use　the　dreary　warning　about　‘‘necessary　economies''
  his　days　were　numbered。　In　the　year　1781　he　was
  dismissed　as　an　incompetent　servant。
  After　the　Professor　and　the　Practical　Business　Man　came
  the　delightful　type　of　financier　who　will　guarantee　everybody
  100　per　cent。　per　month　on　their　money　if　only　they　will
  trust　his　own　infallible　system。
  He　was　Charles　Alexandre　de　Calonne；　a　pushing　official；
  who　had　made　his　career　both　by　his　industry　and　his
  complete　lack　of　honesty　and　scruples。　He　found　the　country
  heavily　indebted；　but　he　was　a　clever　man；　willing　to　oblige
  everybody；　and　he　invented　a　quick　remedy。　He　paid　the
  old　debts　by　contracting　new　ones。　This　method　is　not　new。
  The　result　since　time　immemorial　has　been　disastrous。　In
  less　than　three　years　more　than　800；000；000　francs　had　been
  added　to　the　French　debt　by　this　charming　Minister　of　Finance
  who　never　worried　and　smilingly　signed　his　name　to　every
  demand　that　was　made　by　His　Majesty　and　by　his　lovely
  Queen；　who　had　learned　the　habit　of　spending　during　the　days
  of　her　youth　in　Vienna。
  At　last　even　the　Parliament　of　Paris　（a　high　court　of　justice
  and　not　a　legislative　body）　although　by　no　means　lacking
  in　loyalty　to　their　sovereign；　decided　that　something　must　be
  done。　Calonne　wanted　to　borrow　another　80；000；000　francs。
  It　had　been　a　bad　year　for　the　crops　and　the　misery　and　hunger
  in　the　country　districts　were　terrible。　Unless　something　sensible
  were　done；　France　would　go　bankrupt。　The　King　as　always
  was　unaware　of　the　seriousness　of　the　situation。　Would　it　not
  be　a　good　idea　to　consult　the　representatives　of　the　people？
  Since　1614　no　Estates　General　had　been　called　together。　In
  view　of　the　threatening　panic　there　was　a　demand　that　the
  Estates　be　convened。　Louis　XVI　however；　who　never　could
  take　a　decision；　refused　to　go　as　far　as　that。
  To　pacify　the　popular　clamour　he　called　together　a　meeting
  of　the　Notables　in　the　year　1787。　This　merely　meant　a　gathering
  of　the　best　families　who　discussed　what　could　and　should
  be　done；　without　touching　their　feudal　and　clerical　privilege
  of　tax…exemption。　It　is　unreasonable　to　expect　that　a　certain
  class　of　society　shall　commit　political　and　economic　suicide　for
  the　benefit　of　another　group　of　fellow…citizens。　The　127
  Notables　obstinately　refused　to　surrender　a　single　one　of　their
  ancient　rights。　The　crowd　in　the　street；　being　now　exceedingly
  hungry；　demanded　that　Necker；　in　whom　they　had　confidence；
  be　reappointed。　The　Notables　said　‘‘No。''　The　crowd
  in　the　street　began　to　smash　windows　and　do　other　unseemly
  things。　The　Notables　fled。　Calonne　was　dismissed。
  A　new　colourless　Minister　of　Finance；　the　Cardinal
  Lomenie　de　Brienne；　was　appointed　and　Louis；　driven　by　the
  violent　threats　of　his　starving　subjects；　agreed　to　call　together
  the　old　Estates　General　as　‘‘soon　as　practicable。''　This　vague
  promise　of　course　satisfied　no　one。
  No　such　severe　winter　had　been　experienced　for　almost　a
  century。　The　crops　had　been　either　destroyed　by　floods　or　had
  been　frozen　to　death　in　the　fields。　All　the　olive　trees　of　the
  Provence　had　been　killed。　Private　charity　tried　to　do　some…
  thing　but　could　accomplish　little　for　eighteen　million　starving
  people。　Everywhere　bread　riots　occurred。　A　generation　before
  these　would　have　been　put　down　by　the　army。　But　the
  work　of　the　new　philosophical　school　had　begun　to　bear　fruit。
  People　began　to　understand　that　a　shotgun　is　no　effective
  remedy　for　a　hungry　stomach　and　even　the　soldiers　（who　came
  from　among　the　people）　were　no　longer　to　be　depended　upon。
  It　was　absolutely　necessary　that　the　king　should　do　something
  definite　to　regain　the　popular　goodwill；　but　again　he　hesitated。
  Here　and　there　in　the　provinces；　little　independent　Republics
  were　established　by　followers　of　the　new　school。　The　cry
  of　‘‘no　taxation　without　representation''　（the　slogan　of　the
  American　rebels　a　quarter　of　a　century　before）　was　heard
  among　the　faithful　middle　classes。　France　was　threatened　with
  general　anarchy。　To　appease　the　people　and　to　increase　the
  royal　popularity；　the　government　unexpectedly　suspended　the
  former　very　strict　form　of　censorship　of　books。　At　once　a
  flood　of　ink　descended　upon　France。　Everybody；　high　or
  low；　criticised　and　was　criticised。　More　than　2000
  pamphlets　were　published。　Lomenie　de　Brienne　was　swept　away
  by　a　storm　of　abuse。　Necker　was　hastily　called　back　to　placate；
  as　best　he　could；　the　nation…wide　unrest。　Immediately　the　stock
  market　went　up　thirty　per　cent。　And　by　common　consent；　people
  suspended　judgment　for　a　little　while　longer。　In　May　of
  1789　the　Estates　General　were　to　assemble　and　then　the　wisdom
  of　the　entire　nation　would　speedily　solve　the　difficult　problem
  of　recreating　the　kingdom　of　France　into　a　healthy　and　happy
  state。
  This　prevailing　idea；　that　the　combined　wisdom　of　the
  people　would　be　able　to　solve　all　difficulties；　proved　disastrous。
  It　lamed　all　personal　effort　during　many　important　months。
  Instead　of　keeping　the　government　in　his　own　hands　at　this
  critical　moment；　Necker　allowed　everything　to　drift。　Hence
  there　was　a　new　outbreak　of　the　acrimonious　debate　upon　the
  best　ways　to　reform　the　old　kingdom。　Everywhere　the　power
  of　the　police　weakened。　The　people　of　the　Paris　suburbs；
  under　the　leadership　of　professional　agitators；　gradually　began
  to　discover　their　strength；　and　commenced　to　play　the　role
  which　was　to　be　theirs　all　through　the　years　of　the　great　unrest；
  when　they