The　motion　was　seconded　by　John　Adams　of　Massachusetts。
  It　was　carried　on　July　the　second　and　on　July　fourth；
  it　was　followed　by　an　official　Declaration　of　Independence；
  which　was　the　work　of　Thomas　Jefferson；　a　serious　and　exceedingly
  capable　student　of　both　politics　and　government　and
  destined　to　be　one　of　the　most　famous　of　out　American　presidents。
  When　news　of　this　event　reached　Europe；　and　was　followed
  by　the　final　victory　of　the　colonists　and　the　adoption　of
  the　famous　Constitution　of　the　year　1787　（the　first　of　all　written
  constitutions）　it　caused　great　interest。　The　dynastic　system
  of　the　highly　centralised　states　which　had　been　developed
  after　the　great　religious　wars　of　the　seventeenth　century　had
  reached　the　height　of　its　power。　Everywhere　the　palace　of
  the　king　had　grown　to　enormous　proportions；　while　the　cities
  of　the　royal　realm　were　being　surrounded　by　rapidly　growing
  acres　of　slums。　The　inhabitants　of　those　slums　were　showing
  signs　of　restlessness。　They　were　quite　helpless。　But　the
  higher　classes；　the　nobles　and　the　professional　men；　they　too
  were　beginning　to　have　certain　doubts　about　the　economic　and
  political　conditions　under　which　they　lived。　The　success　of
  the　American　colonists　showed　them　that　many　things　were
  possible　which　had　been　held　impossible　only　a　short　time
  before。
  According　to　the　poet；　the　shot　which　opened　the　battle
  of　Lexington　was　‘‘heard　around　the　world。''　That　was　a　bit
  of　an　exaggeration。　The　Chinese　and　the　Japanese　and　the
  Russians　（not　to　speak　of　the　Australians；　who　had　just　been
  re…discovered　by　Captain　Cook；　whom　they　killed　for　his
  trouble；）　never　heard　of　it　at　all。　But　it　carried　across　the
  Atlantic　Ocean。　It　landed　in　the　powder　house　of　European
  discontent　and　in　France　it　caused　an　explosion　which　rocked
  the　entire　continent　from　Petrograd　to　Madrid　and　buried　the
  representatives　of　the　old　statecraft　and　the　old　diplomacy
  under　several　tons　of　democratic　bricks。
  THE　FRENCH　REVOLUTION
  THE　GREAT　FRENCH　REVOLUTION　PROCLAIMS
  THE　PRINCIPLES　OF　LIBERTY；
  FRATERNITY　AND　EQUALITY　UNTO　ALL
  THE　PEOPLE　OF　THE　EARTH
  BEFORE　we　talk　about　a　revolution　it　is　just　as　well　that
  we　explain　just　what　this　word　means。　In　the　terms　of　a
  great　Russian　writer　（and　Russians　ought　to　know　what　they
  are　talking　about　in　this　field）　a　revolution　is　‘‘a　swift　overthrow；
  in　a　few　years；　of　institutions　which　have　taken　centuries
  to　root　in　the　soil；　and　seem　so　fixed　and　immovable　that
  even　the　most　ardent　reformers　hardly　dare　to　attack　them　in
  their　writings。　It　is　the　fall；　the　crumbling　away　in　a　brief
  period；　of　all　that　up　to　that　time　has　composed　the　essence
  of　social；　religious；　political　and　economic　life　in　a　nation。''
  Such　a　revolution　took　place　in　France　in　the　eighteenth
  century　when　the　old　civilisation　of　the　country　had　grown
  stale。　The　king　in　the　days　of　Louis　XIV　had　become
  EVERYTHING　and　was　the　state。　The　Nobility；　formerly
  the　civil　servant　of　the　federal　state；　found　itself　without　any
  duties　and　became　a　social　ornament　of　the　royal　court。
  This　French　state　of　the　eighteenth　century；　however；　cost
  incredible　sums　of　money。　This　money　had　to　be　produced
  in　the　form　of　taxes。　Unfortunately　the　kings　of　France　had
  not　been　strong　enough　to　force　the　nobility　and　the　clergy
  to　pay　their　share　of　these　taxes。　Hence　the　taxes　were　paid
  entirely　by　the　agricultural　population。　But　the　peasants
  living　in　dreary　hovels；　no　longer　in　intimate　contact　with　their
  former　landlords；　but　victims　of　cruel　and　incompetent　land
  agents；　were　going　from　bad　to　worse。　Why　should　they
  work　and　exert　themselves？　Increased　returns　upon　their
  land　merely　meant　more　taxes　and　nothing　for　themselves
  and　therefore　they　neglected　their　fields　as　much　as　they　dared。
  Hence　we　have　a　king　who　wanders　in　empty　splendour
  through　the　vast　halls　of　his　palaces；　habitually　followed　by
  hungry　office　seekers；　all　of　whom　live　upon　the　revenue　obtained
  from　peasants　who　are　no　better　than　the　beasts　of　the
  fields。　It　is　not　a　pleasant　picture；　but　it　is　not　exaggerated。
  There　was；　however；　another　side　to　the　so…called　‘‘Ancien
  Regime''　which　we　must　keep　in　mind。
  A　wealthy　middle　class；　closely　connected　with　the　nobility
  （by　the　usual　process　of　the　rich　banker's　daughter　marrying
  the　poor　baron's　son）　and　a　court　composed　of　all　the　most
  entertaining　people　of　France；　had　brought　the　polite　art　of
  graceful　living　to　its　highest　development。　As　the　best　brains
  of　the　country　were　not　allowed　to　occupy　themselves　with
  questions　of　political　economics；　they　spent　their　idle　hours
  upon　the　discussion　of　abstract　ideas。
  As　fashions　in　modes　of　thought　and　personal　behaviour
  are　quite　as　likely　to　run　to　extremes　as　fashion　in　dress；　it
  was　natural　that　the　most　artificial　society　of　that　day　should
  take　a　tremendous　interest　in　what　they　considered　‘‘the　simple
  life。''　The　king　and　the　queen；　the　absolute　and　unquestioned
  proprietors　of　this　country　galled　France；　together　with　all　its
  colonies　and　dependencies；　went　to　live　in　funny　little　country
  houses　all　dressed　up　as　milk…maids　and　stable…boys　and　played
  at　being　shepherds　in　a　happy　vale　of　ancient　Hellas。　Around
  them；　their　courtiers　danced　attendance；　their　court…musicians
  composed　lovely　minuets；　their　court　barbers　devised　more
  and　more　elaborate　and　costly　headgear；　until　from　sheer　boredom
  and　lack　of　real　jobs；　this　whole　artificial　world　of　Versailles
  （the　great　show　place　which　Louis　XIV　had　built　far
  away　from　his　noisy　and　restless　city）　talked　of　nothing　but
  those　subjects　which　were　furthest　removed　from　their　own
  lives；　just　as　a　man　who　is　starving　will　talk　of　nothing　except
  food。
  When　Voltaire；　the　courageous　old　philosopher；　playwright；
  historian　and　novelist；　and　the　great　enemy　of　all
  religious　and　political　tyranny；　began　to　throw　his　bombs　of
  criticism　at　everything　connected　with　the　Established　Order
  of　Things；　the　whole　French　world　applauded　him　and　his
  theatrical　pieces　played　to　standing　room　only。　When　Jean
  Jacques　Rousseau　waxed　sentimental　about　primitive　man
  and　gave　his　contemporaries　delightful　descriptions　of　the
  happiness　of　the　original　inhabitants　of　this　planet；　（about
  whom　he　knew　as　little　as　he　did　about　the　children；　upon　whose
  education　he　was　the　recognised　authority；）　all　France　read
  his　‘‘Social　Contract''　and　this　society　in　which　the　king　and
  the　state　were　one；　wept　bitter　tears　when　they　heard　Rousseau's
  appeal　for　a　return　to　the　blessed　days　when　the　real
  sovereignty　had　lain　in　the　hands　of　the　people　and　when　the
  king　had　been　merely　the　servant　of　his　people。
  When　Montesquieu　published　his　‘‘Persian　Letters''　in
  which　two　distinguished　Persian　travellers　turn　the　whole　existing
  society　of　France　topsy…turvy　and　poke　fun　at　everything
  from　the　king　down　to　the　lowest　of　his　six　hundred
  pastry　cooks；　the　book　immediately　went　through　four
  editions　and　assured　the　writer　thousands　of　readers　for　his
  famous　discussion　of　the　‘‘Spirit　of　the　Laws''　in　which　the
  noble　Baron　compared　the　excellent　English　system　with　the
  backward　system　of　France　and　advocated　instead　of　an　absolute
  monarchy　the　establishment　of　a　state　in　which　the　Executive；
  the　Legislative　and　the　Judicial　powers　should　be　in
  separate　hands　and　should　work　independently　of　each　other。
  When　Lebreton；　the　Parisian　book…seller；　announced　that
  Messieurs　Diderot；　d'Alembert；　Turgot　and　a　score　of　other
  distinguished　writers　were　going　to　publish　an　Encyclopaedia
  which　was　to　contain　‘‘all　the　new　ideas　and　the　new　science
  and　the　new　knowledge；''　the　response　from　the　side　of　the
  public　was　most　satisfactory；　and　when　after　twenty…two　years
  the　last　of　the　twenty…eight　volumes　had　been　finished；　the
  somewhat　belated　interference　of　the　police　could　not　repress
  the　enthusiasm　with　which　French　society　received　this　most
  important　but　very　dangerous　contribution　to　the　discussions
  of　the　day。
  Here；　let　me　give　you　a　little　warning。　When　you　read　a
  novel　about　the　French　revolution　or　see　a　play　or　a　movie；
  you　will　easily　get　the　impression　that　the　Revolution　was　the
  work　of　the　rabble　from　the　Paris　slums。　It　was　nothing
  of　the　kind。　The　mob　appears　often　upon　the　‘‘evolutionary
  stage；　but　invariably　at　the　instigation　and　under　the
  leadership　of　those　middle…class　professional　men　who　used　the
  hungry　multitude　as　an　efficient　ally　in　their　warfare　upon
  the　king　and　his　court。　But　the　fundamental　ideas　which
  caused　the　revolution　were　invented　by　a　few　brilliant　minds；
  and　they　were　at　first　introduced　into　the　charming　drawing…rooms
  of　the　‘‘Ancien　Regime''　to　provide　amiable　diversion
  for　the　much…bored　ladies　and　gentlemen　of　his　Majesty's　court。
  These　pleasant　but　careless　people　played　with　the　dangerous
  fireworks　of　social　criticism