During　their　first　relations　with　weaker　races；　all　European
  nations　have　behaved　with　shocking　brutality。　The　English　and
  the　Dutch；　however；　knew　better　where　to　draw　the　dine。　Provided
  they　got　their　spices　and　their　gold　and　silver　and　their　taxes；
  they　were　willing　to　let　the　native　live　as　it　best　pleased　him。
  It　was　not　very　difficult　for　them　therefore　to　establish
  themselves　in　the　richest　parts　of　the　world。　But　as　soon　as
  this　had　been　accomplished；　they　began　to　fight　each　other　for
  still　further　possessions。　Strangely　enough；　the　colonial　wars
  were　never　settled　in　the　colonies　themselves。　They　were　decided
  three　thousand　miles　away　by　the　navies　of　the　contending
  countries。　It　is　one　of　the　most　interesting　principles　of　ancient
  and　modern　warfare　（one　of　the　few　reliable　laws　of
  history）　that　‘‘the　nation　which　commands　the　sea　is　also　the
  nation　which　commands　the　land。''　So　far　this　law　has　never
  failed　to　work；　but　the　modern　airplane　may　have　changed　it。
  In　the　eighteenth　century；　however；　there　were　no　flying　machines
  and　it　was　the　British　navy　which　gained　for　England
  her　vast　American　and　Indian　and　African　colonies。
  The　series　of　naval　wars　between　England　and　Holland　in
  the　seventeenth　century　does　not　interest　us　here。　It　ended　as
  all　such　encounters　between　hopelessly　ill…matched　powers　will
  end。　But　the　warfare　between　England　and　France　（her　other
  rival）　is　of　greater　importance　to　us；　for　while　the　superior
  British　fleet　in　the　end　defeated　the　French　navy；　a　great　deal
  of　the　preliminary　fighting　was　done　on　our　own　American
  continent。　In　this　vast　country；　both　France　and　England
  claimed　everything　which　had　been　discovered　and　a　lot　more
  which　the　eye　of　no　white　man　had　ever　seen。　In　1497　Cabot
  had　landed　in　the　northern　part　of　America　and　twenty…seven
  years　later；　Giovanni　Verrazano　had　visited　these　coasts。　Cabot
  had　flown　the　English　flag。　Verrazano　had　sailed　under　the
  French　flag。　Hence　both　England　and　France　proclaimed
  themselves　the　owners　of　the　entire　continent。
  During　the　seventeenth　century；　some　ten　small　English
  colonies　had　been　founded　between　Maine　and　the　Carolinas。
  They　were　usually　a　haven　of　refuge　for　some　particular　sect
  of　English　dissenters；　such　as　the　Puritans；　who　in　the　year
  1620　went　to　New　England；　or　the　Quakers；　who　settled　in
  Pennsylvania　in　1681。　They　were　small　frontier　communities；
  nestling　close　to　the　shores　of　the　ocean；　where　people　had
  gathered　to　make　a　new　home　and　begin　life　among　happier
  surroundings；　far　away　from　royal　supervision　and　interference。
  The　French　colonies；　on　the　other　hand；　always　remained
  a　possession　of　the　crown。　No　Huguenots　or　Protestants　were
  allowed　in　these　colonies　for　fear　that　they　might　contaminate
  the　Indians　with　their　dangerous　Protestant　doctrines　and
  would　perhaps　interfere　with　the　missionary　work　of　the　Jesuit
  fathers。　The　English　colonies；　therefore；　had　been　founded
  upon　a　much　healthier　basis　than　their　French　neighbours　and
  rivals。　They　were　an　expression　of　the　commercial　energy　of
  the　English　middle　classes；　while　the　French　settlements　were
  inhabited　by　people　who　had　crossed　the　ocean　as　servants　of　the
  king　and　who　expected　to　return　to　Paris　at　the　first　possible　chance。
  Politically；　however；　the　position　of　the　English　colonies
  was　far　from　satisfactory。　The　French　had　discovered　the
  mouth　of　the　Saint　Lawrence　in　the　sixteenth　century。　From
  the　region　of　the　Great　Lakes　they　had　worked　their　way　southward；
  had　descended　the　Mississippi　and　had　built　several　fortifications
  along　the　Gulf　of　Mexico。　After　a　century　of　exploration；
  a　line　of　sixty　French　forts　cut　off　the　English　settlements
  along　the　Atlantic　seaboard　from　the　interior。
  The　English　land　grants；　made　to　the　different　colonial
  companies　had　given　them　‘‘all　land　from　sea　to　sea。''　This
  sounded　well　on　paper；　but　in　practice；　British　territory
  ended　where　the　line　of　French　fortifications　began。　To　break
  through　this　barrier　was　possible　but　it　took　both　men　and
  money　and　caused　a　series　of　horrible　border　wars　in　which
  both　sides　murdered　their　white　neighbours；　with　the　help　of　the
  Indian　tribes。
  As　long　as　the　Stuarts　had　ruled　England　there　had　been
  no　danger　of　war　with　France。　The　Stuarts　needed　the　Bourbons
  in　their　attempt　to　establish　an　autocratic　form　of　government
  and　to　break　the　power　of　Parliament。　But　in　1689　the
  last　of　the　Stuarts　had　disappeared　from　British　soil　and　Dutch
  William；　the　great　enemy　of　Louis　XIV　succeeded　him。　From
  that　time　on；　until　the　Treaty　of　Paris　of　1763；　France　and
  England　fought　for　the　possession　of　India　and　North　America。
  During　these　wars；　as　I　have　said　before；　the　English　navies
  invariably　beat　the　French。　Cut　off　from　her　colonies；　France
  lost　most　of　her　possessions；　and　when　peace　was　declared；　the
  entire　North　American　continent　had　fallen　into　British　hands
  and　the　great　work　of　exploration　of　Cartier；　Champlain；　La
  Salle；　Marquette　and　a　score　of　others　was　lost　to　France。
  Only　a　very　small　part　of　this　vast　domain　was　inhabited。
  From　Massachusetts　in　the　north；　where　the　Pilgrims　（a　sect
  of　Puritans　who　were　very　intolerant　and　who　therefore　had
  found　no　happiness　either　in　Anglican　England　or　Calvinist
  Holland）　had　landed　in　the　year　1620；　to　the　Carolinas　and
  Virginia　（the　tobacco…raising　provinces　which　had　been　founded
  entirely　for　the　sake　of　profit）；　stretched　a　thin　line　of
  sparsely　populated　territory。　But　the　men　who　lived　in　this
  new　land　of　fresh　air　and　high　skies　were　very　different　from
  their　brethren　of　the　mother　country。　In　the　wilderness　they
  had　learned　independence　and　self…reliance。　They　were　the
  sons　of　hardy　and　energetic　ancestors。　Lazy　and　timourous
  people　did　not　cross　the　ocean　in　those　days。　The　American
  colonists　hated　the　restraint　and　the　lack　of　breathing　space
  which　had　made　their　lives　in　the　old　country　so　very　unhappy。
  They　meant　to　be　their　own　masters。　This　the　ruling　classes
  of　England　did　not　seem　to　understand。　The　government　annoyed
  the　colonists　and　the　colonists；　who　hated　to　be　bothered
  in　this　way；　began　to　annoy　the　British　government。
  Bad　feeling　caused　more　bad　feeling。　It　is　not　necessary
  to　repeat　here　in　detail　what　actually　happened　and　what　might
  have　been　avoided　if　the　British　king　had　been　more　intelligent
  than　George　III　or　less　given　to　drowsiness　and　indifference
  than　his　minister；　Lord　North。　The　British　colonists；
  when　they　understood　that　peaceful　arguments　would　not
  settle　the　difficulties；　took　to　arms。　From　being　loyal　subjects；
  they　turned　rebels；　who　exposed　themselves　to　the　punishment
  of　death　when　they　were　captured　by　the　German
  soldiers；　whom　George　hired　to　do　his　fighting　after　the　pleasant
  custom　of　that　day；　when　Teutonic　princes　sold　whole
  regiments　to　the　highest　bidder。
  The　war　between　England　and　her　American　colonies
  lasted　seven　years。　During　most　of　that　time；　the　final　success
  of　the　rebels　seemed　very　doubtful。　A　great　number　of
  the　people；　especially　in　the　cities；　had　remained　loyal　to　their
  king。　They　were　in　favour　of　a　compromise；　and　would　have
  been　willing　to　sue　for　peace。　But　the　great　figure　of　Washington
  stood　guard　over　the　cause　of　the　colonists。
  Ably　assisted　by　a　handful　of　brave　men；　he　used　his　steadfast
  but　badly　equipped　armies　to　weaken　the　forces　of　the　king。
  Time　and　again　when　defeat　seemed　unavoidable；　his　strategy
  turned　the　tide　of　battle。　Often　his　men　were　ill…fed。　During
  the　winter　they　lacked　shoes　and　coats　and　were　forced　to　live
  in　unhealthy　dug…outs。　But　their　trust　in　their　great　leader
  was　absolute　and　they　stuck　it　out　until　the　final　hour　of　victory。
  But　more　interesting　than　the　campaigns　of　Washington
  or　the　diplomatic　triumphs　of　Benjamin　Franklin　who　was
  in　Europe　getting　money　from　the　French　government　and
  the　Amsterdam　bankers；　was　an　event　which　occurred　early　in
  the　revolution。　The　representatives　of　the　different　colonies
  had　gathered　in　Philadelphia　to　discuss　matters　of　common
  importance。　It　was　the　first　year　of　the　Revolution。　Most
  of　the　big　towns　of　the　sea　coast　were　still　in　the　hands　of　the
  British。　Reinforcements　from　England　were　arriving　by　the
  ship　load。　Only　men　who　were　deeply　convinced　of　the　righteousness
  of　their　cause　would　have　found　the　courage　to　take
  the　momentous　decision　of　the　months　of　June　and　July　of
  the　year　1776。
  In　June；　Richard　Henry　Lee　of　Virginia　proposed　a　motion
  to　the　Continental　Congress　that　‘‘these　united　colonies
  are；　and　of　right　ought　to　be；　free　and　independent　states；　that
  they　are　absolved　from　all　allegiance　to　the　British　crown；　and
  that　all　political　connection　between　them　and　the　state　of
  Great　Britain　is　and　ought　to　be；　totally　dissolved。''
  The　motion　was　seconded　by　John　Adams　of　Massachusetts。
  It　was　carried　on