been　a　source　of　great　worry　to　all　the　neighbours。　From　his
  side；　Peter　had　watched　with　interest　the　many　adventures　of
  his　Baltic　rival；　the　kingdom　of　Sweden。　In　the　year　1654；
  Christina；　the　only　daughter　of　Gustavus　Adolphus；　the　hero
  of　the　Thirty　Years　War；　had　renounced　the　throne　and　had
  gone　to　Rome　to　end　her　days　as　a　devout　Catholic。　A　Protestant
  nephew　of　Gustavus　Adolphus　had　succeeded　the　last
  Queen　of　the　House　of　Vasa。　Under　Charles　X　and　Charles
  XI；　the　new　dynasty　had　brought　Sweden　to　its　highest　point
  of　development。　But　in　1697；　Charles　XI　died　suddenly　and
  was　succeeded　by　a　boy　of　fifteen；　Charles　XII。
  This　was　the　moment　for　which　many　of　the　northern　states
  had　waited。　During　the　great　religious　wars　of　the　seventeenth
  century；　Sweden　had　grown　at　the　expense　of　her　neighbours。
  The　time　had　come；　so　the　owners　thought；　to　balance　the　account。
  At　once　war　broke　out　between　Russia；　Poland；　Denmark
  and　Saxony　on　the　one　side；　and　Sweden　on　the　other。
  The　raw　and　untrained　armies　of　Peter　were　disastrously　beaten
  by　Charles　in　the　famous　battle　of　Narva　in　November　of
  the　year　1700。　Then　Charles；　one　of　the　most　interesting　military
  geniuses　of　that　century；　turned　against　his　other　enemies
  and　for　nine　years　he　hacked　and　burned　his　way　through　the
  villages　and　cities　of　Poland；　Saxony；　Denmark　and　the　Baltic
  provinces；　while　Peter　drilled　and　trained　his　soldiers　in　distant
  Russia。
  As　a　result；　in　the　year　1709；　in　the　battle　of　Poltawa；　the
  Moscovites　destroyed　the　exhausted　armies　of　Sweden。　Charles
  continued　to　be　a　highly　picturesque　figure；　a　wonderful　hero
  of　romance；　but　in　his　vain　attempt　to　have　his　revenge；　he
  ruined　his　own　country。　In　the　year　1718；　he　was　accidentally
  killed　or　assassinated　（we　do　not　know　which）　and　when　peace
  was　made　in　1721；　in　the　town　of　Nystadt；　Sweden　had　lost　all
  of　her　former　Baltic　possessions　except　Finland。　The　new
  Russian　state；　created　by　Peter；　had　become　the　leading　power
  of　northern　Europe。　But　already　a　new　rival　was　on　the
  way。　The　Prussian　state　was　taking　shape。
  THE　RISE　OF　PRUSSIA
  THE　EXTRAORDINARY　RISE　OF　A　LITTLE
  STATE　IN　A　DREARY　PART　OF　NORTHERN
  GERMANY；　CALLED　PRUSSIA
  THE　history　of　Prussia　is　the　history　of　a　frontier　district。
  In　the　ninth　century；　Charlemagne　had　transferred　the　old
  centre　of　civilisation　from　the　Mediterranean　to　the　wild　regions
  of　northwestern　Europe。　His　Frankish　soldiers　had　pushed
  the　frontier　of　Europe　further　and　further　towards　the　east。
  They　had　conquered　many　lands　from　the　heathenish　Slavs　and
  Lithuanians　who　were　living　in　the　plain　between　the　Baltic
  Sea　and　the　Carpathian　Mountains；　and　the　Franks　administered
  those　outlying　districts　just　as　the　United　States　used
  to　administer　her　territories　before　they　achieved　the　dignity
  of　statehood。
  The　frontier　state　of　Brandenburg　had　been　originally
  founded　by　Charlemagne　to　defend　his　eastern　possessions
  against　raids　of　the　wild　Saxon　tribes。　The　Wends；　a　Slavic
  tribe　which　inhabited　that　region；　were　subjugated　during　the
  tenth　century　and　their　market…place；　by　the　name　of　Brennabor；
  became　the　centre　of　and　gave　its　name　to　the　new　province
  of　Brandenburg。
  During　the　eleventh；　twelfth；　thirteenth　and　fourteenth
  centuries；　a　succession　of　noble　families　exercised　the　functions　of
  imperial　governor　in　this　frontier　state。　Finally　in　the
  fifteenth　century；　the　House　of　Hohenzollern　made　its　appear…
  ance；　and　as　Electors　of　Brandenburg；　commenced　to　change　a
  sandy　and　forlorn　frontier　territory　into　one　of　the　most　efficient
  empires　of　the　modern　world。
  These　Hohenzollerns；　who　have　just　been　removed　from
  the　historical　stage　by　the　combined　forces　of　Europe　and
  America；　came　originally　from　southern　Germany。　They　were
  of　very　humble　origin。　In　the　twelfth　century　a　certain　Frederick
  of　Hohenzollern　had　made　a　lucky　marriage　and　had　been
  appointed　keeper　of　the　castle　of　Nuremberg。　His　descendants
  had　used　every　chance　and　every　opportunity　to　improve　their
  power　and　after　several　centuries　of　watchful　grabbing；　they
  had　been　appointed　to　the　dignity　of　Elector；　the　name　given　to
  those　sovereign　princes　who　were　supposed　to　elect　the　Emperors
  of　the　old　German　Empire。　During　the　Reformation；
  they　had　taken　the　side　of　the　Protestants　and　the　early
  seventeenth　century　found　them　among　the　most　powerful　of　the
  north　German　princes。
  During　the　Thirty　Years　War；　both　Protestants　and
  Catholics　had　plundered　Brandenburg　and　Prussia　with　equal
  zeal。　But　under　Frederick　William；　the　Great　Elector；　the
  damage　was　quickly　repaired　and　by　a　wise　and　careful　use　of
  all　the　economic　and　intellectual　forces　of　the　country；　a　state
  was　founded　in　which　there　was　practically　no　waste。
  Modern　Prussia；　a　state　in　which　the　individual　and　his
  wishes　and　aspirations　have　been　entirely　absorbed　by　the
  interests　of　the　community　as　a　whole　this　Prussia　dates　back
  to　the　father　of　Frederick　the　Great。　Frederick　William　I　was
  a　hard　working；　parsimonious　Prussian　sergeant；　with　a　great
  love　for　bar…room　stories　and　strong　Dutch　tobacco；　an　intense
  dislike　of　all　frills　and　feathers；　（especially　if　they　were　of
  French　origin；）　and　possessed　of　but　one　idea。　That　idea　was
  Duty。　Severe　with　himself；　he　tolerated　no　weakness　in　his
  subjects；　whether　they　be　generals　or　common　soldiers。　The
  relation　between　himself　and　his　son　Frederick　was　never　cordial；
  to　say　the　least。　The　boorish　manners　of　the　father　offended
  the　finer　spirit　of　the　son。　The　son's　love　for　French
  manners；　literature；　philosophy　and　music　was　rejected　by　the
  father　as　a　manifestation　of　sissy…ness。　There　followed　a　terrible
  outbreak　between　these　two　strange　temperaments。　Frederick
  tried　to　escape　to　England。　He　was　caught　and　court…
  martialed　and　forced　to　witness　the　decapitation　of　his　best
  friend　who　had　tried　to　help　him。　Thereupon　as　part　of　his
  punishment；　the　young　prince　was　sent　to　a　little　fortress
  somewhere　in　the　provinces　to　be　taught　the　details　of　his　future
  business　of　being　a　king。　It　proved　a　blessing　in　disguise。
  When　Frederick　came　to　the　throne　in　1740；　he　knew　how　his
  country　was　managed　from　the　birth　certificate　of　a　pauper's
  son　to　the　minutest　detail　of　a　complicated　annual　Budget。
  As　an　author；　especially　in　his　book　called　the　‘‘Anti…
  Macchiavelli；''　Frederick　had　expressed　his　contempt　for　the
  political　creed　of　the　ancient　Florentine　historian；　who　had
  advised　his　princely　pupils　to　lie　and　cheat　whenever　it　was
  necessary　to　do　so　for　the　benefit　of　their　country。　The　ideal
  ruler　in　Frederick's　volume　was　the　first　servant　of　his　people；
  the　enlightened　despot　after　the　example　of　Louis　XIV。　In
  practice；　however；　Frederick；　while　working　for　his　people
  twenty　hours　a　day；　tolerated　no　one　to　be　near　him　as　a
  counsellor。　His　ministers　were　superior　clerks。　Prussia　was　his
  private　possession；　to　be　treated　according　to　his　own　wishes。
  And　nothing　was　allowed　to　interfere　with　the　interest　of　the
  state。
  In　the　year　1740　the　Emperor　Charles　VI；　of　Austria；
  died。　He　had　tried　to　make　the　position　of　his　only　daughter；
  Maria　Theresa；　secure　through　a　solemn　treaty；　written　black
  on　white；　upon　a　large　piece　of　parchment。　But　no　sooner　had
  the　old　emperor　been　deposited　in　the　ancestral　crypt　of　the
  Habsburg　family；　than　the　armies　of　Frederick　were　marching
  towards　the　Austrian　frontier　to　occupy　that　part　of　Silesia　for
  which　（together　with　almost　everything　else　in　central　Europe）
  Prussia　clamored；　on　account　of　some　ancient　and　very
  doubtful　rights　of　claim。　In　a　number　of　wars；　Frederick
  conquered　all　of　Silesia；　and　although　he　was　often　very　near
  defeat；　he　maintained　himself　in　his　newly　acquired　territories
  against　all　Austrian　counter…attacks。
  Europe　took　due　notice　of　this　sudden　appearance　of　a
  very　powerful　new　state。　In　the　eighteenth　century；　the　Germans
  were　a　people　who　had　been　ruined　by　the　great　religious
  wars　and　who　were　not　held　in　high　esteem　by　any　one。　Frederick；
  by　an　effort　as　sudden　and　quite　as　terrific　as　that　of
  Peter　of　Russia；　changed　this　attitude　of　contempt　into　one
  of　fear。　The　internal　affairs　of　Prussia　were　arranged　so
  skillfully　that　the　subjects　had　less　reason　for　complaint　than
  elsewhere。　The　treasury　showed　an　annual　surplus　instead　of　a
  deficit。　Torture　was　abolished。　The　judiciary　system　was
  improved。　Good　roads　and　good　schools　and　good　universities；
  together　with　a　scrupulously　honest　administration；　made　the
  people　feel　that　whatever　services　were　demanded　of　them；
  they　（to　speak　the　vernacular）　got　their　money's　worth。
  After　having　been　for　several　centuries　the　battle　field　of
  the　French　and　the　Austrians　and　the　Swedes　and　the　Danes
  and　the　Poles；　Germany；　encouraged　by　the　example　of　Prussia；
  began　to　regain　self…confidence。　And　this　wa