of　England；　he　was　officially　made　Lord　Protector　in　the　year
  1653。　He　ruled　five　years。　He　used　this　period　to　continue
  the　policies　of　Elizabeth。　Spain　once　more　became　the　arch
  enemy　of　England　and　war　upon　the　Spaniard　was　made　a　national
  and　sacred　issue。
  The　commerce　of　England　and　the　interests　of　the　traders
  were　placed　before　everything　else；　and　the　Protestant　creed　of
  the　strictest　nature　was　rigourously　maintained。　In　maintaining
  England's　position　abroad；　Cromwell　was　successful。　As　a
  social　reformer；　however；　he　failed　very　badly。　The　world　is
  made　up　of　a　number　of　people　and　they　rarely　think　alike。
  In　the　long　run；　this　seems　a　very　wise　provision。　A　government
  of　and　by　and　for　one　single　part　of　the　entire　community
  cannot　possibly　survive。　The　Puritans　had　been　a　great
  force　for　good　when　they　tried　to　correct　the　abuse　of　the
  royal　power。　As　the　absolute　Rulers　of　England　they　became
  intolerable。
  When　Cromwell　died　in　1658；　it　was　an　easy　matter　for　the
  Stuarts　to　return　to　their　old　kingdom。　Indeed；　they　were
  welcomed　as　‘‘deliverers''　by　the　people　who　had　found　the
  yoke　of　the　meek　Puritans　quite　as　hard　to　bear　as　that　of　autocratic
  King　Charles。　Provided　the　Stuarts　were　willing　to　forget
  about　the　Divine　Right　of　their　late　and　lamented　father
  and　were　willing　to　recognise　the　superiority　of　Parliament；　the
  people　promised　that　they　would　be　loyal　and　faithful　subjects。
  Two　generations　tried　to　make　a　success　of　this　new　arrangement。
  But　the　Stuarts　apparently　had　not　learned　their
  lesson　and　were　unable　to　drop　their　bad　habits。　Charles　II；
  who　came　back　in　the　year　1660；　was　an　amiable　but　worthless
  person。　His　indolence　and　his　constitutional　insistence　upon
  following　the　easiest　course；　together　with　his　conspicuous　success
  as　a　liar；　prevented　an　open　outbreak　between　himself　and
  his　people。　By　the　act　of　Uniformity　in　1662　he　broke　the
  power　of　the　Puritan　clergy　by　banishing　all　dissenting　clergymen
  from　their　parishes。　By　the　so…called　Conventicle　Act　of
  1664　he　tried　to　prevent　the　Dissenters　from　attending　religious
  meetings　by　a　threat　of　deportation　to　the　West　Indies。　This
  looked　too　much　like　the　good　old　days　of　Divine　Right。　People
  began　to　show　the　old　and　well…known　signs　of　impatience；
  and　Parliament　suddenly　experienced　difficulty　in　providing
  the　King　with　funds。
  Since　he　could　not　get　money　from　an　unwilling　Parliament；
  Charles　borrowed　it　secretly　from　his　neighbour　and　cousin
  King　Louis　of　France。　He　betrayed　his　Protestant　allies　in
  return　for　200；000　pounds　per　year；　and　laughed　at　the　poor
  simpletons　of　Parliament。
  Economic　independence　suddenly　gave　the　King　great　faith
  in　his　own　strength。　He　had　spent　many　years　of　exile　among
  his　Catholic　relations　and　he　had　a　secret　liking　for　their
  religion。　Perhaps　he　could　bring　England　back　to　Rome！　He
  passed　a　Declaration　of　Indulgence　which　suspended　the　old
  laws　against　the　Catholics　and　Dissenters。　This　happened　just
  when　Charles'　younger　brother　James　was　said　to　have　become
  a　Catholic。　All　this　looked　suspicious　to　the　man　in　the　street
  People　began　to　fear　some　terrible　Popish　plot。　A　new　spirit
  of　unrest　entered　the　land。　Most　of　the　people　wanted　to　prevent
  another　outbreak　of　civil　war。　To　them　Royal　Oppression
  and　a　Catholic　Kingyea；　even　Divine　Right；were
  preferable　to　a　new　struggle　between　members　of　the　same
  race。　Others　however　were　less　lenient。　They　were　the　much…
  feared　Dissenters；　who　invariably　had　the　courage　of　their
  convictions。　They　were　led　by　several　great　noblemen　who　did
  not　want　to　see　a　return　of　the　old　days　of　absolute　royal
  power。
  For　almost　ten　years；　these　two　great　parties；　the　Whigs
  （the　middle　class　element；　called　by　this　derisive　name　be…
  cause　in　the　year　1640　a　lot　of　Scottish　Whiggamores　or　horse…
  drovers　headed　by　the　Presbyterian　clergy；　had　marched　to
  Edinburgh　to　oppose　the　King）　and　the　Tories　（an　epithet
  originally　used　against　the　Royalist　Irish　adherents　but　now
  applied　to　the　supporters　of　the　King）　opposed　each　other；　but
  neither　wished　to　bring　about　a　crisis。　They　allowed　Charles　to
  die　peacefully　in　his　bed　and　permitted　the　Catholic　James　II
  to　succeed　his　brother　in　1685。　But　when　James；　after　threatening
  the　country　with　the　terrible　foreign　invention　of　a　‘‘standing
  army''　（which　was　to　be　commanded　by　Catholic　Frenchmen）；
  issued　a　second　Declaration　of　Indulgence　in　1688；　and
  ordered　it　to　be　read　in　all　Anglican　churches；　he　went　just　a
  trifle　beyond　that　line　of　sensible　demarcation　which　can　only　be
  transgressed　by　the　most　popular　of　rulers　under　very
  exceptional　circumstances。　Seven　bishops　refused　to　comply
  with　the　Royal　Command。　They　were　accused　of　‘‘seditious
  libel。''　They　were　brought　before　a　court。　The　jury　which
  pronounced　the　verdict　of　‘‘not　guilty''　reaped　a　rich　harvest
  of　popular　approval。
  At　this　unfortunate　moment；　James　（who　in　a　second　marriage
  had　taken　to　wife　Maria　of　the　Catholic　house　of　Modena…
  Este）　became　the　father　of　a　son。　This　meant　that　the　throne
  was　to　go　to　a　Catholic　boy　rather　than　to　his　older　sisters；
  Mary　and　Anne；　who　were　Protestants。　The　man　in　the　street
  again　grew　suspicious。　Maria　of　Modena　was　too　old　to　have
  children！　It　was　all　part　of　a　plot！　A　strange　baby　had　been
  brought　into　the　palace　by　some　Jesuit　priest　that　England
  might　have　a　Catholic　monarch。　And　so　on。　It　looked　as　if
  another　civil　war　would　break　out。　Then　seven　well…known
  men；　both　Whigs　and　Tories；　wrote　a　letter　asking　the　husband
  of　James's　oldest　daughter　Mary；　William　III　the　Stadtholder
  or　head　of　the　Dutch　Republic；　to　come　to　England　and
  deliver　the　country　from　its　lawful　but　entirely　undesirable
  sovereign。
  On　the　fifth　of　November　of　the　year　1688；　William　landed
  at　Torbay。　As　he　did　not　wish　to　make　a　martyr　out　of　his
  father…in…law；　he　helped　him　to　escape　safely　to　France。　On
  the　22nd　of　January　of　1689　he　summoned　Parliament。　On
  the　13th　of　February　of　the　same　year　he　and　his　wife　Mary
  were　proclaimed　joint　sovereigns　of　England　and　the　country
  was　saved　for　the　Protestant　cause。
  Parliament；　having　undertaken　to　be　something　more　than
  a　mere　advisory　body　to　the　King；　made　the　best　of　its
  opportunities。　The　old　Petition　of　Rights　of　the　year　1628　was
  fished　out　of　a　forgotten　nook　of　the　archives。　A　second　and
  more　drastic　Bill　of　Rights　demanded　that　the　sovereign　of
  England　should　belong　to　the　Anglican　church。　Furthermore
  it　stated　that　the　king　had　no　right　to　suspend　the　laws　or
  permit　certain　privileged　citizens　to　disobey　certain　laws。　It
  stipulated　that　‘‘without　consent　of　Parliament　no　taxes　could
  be　levied　and　no　army　could　be　maintained。''　Thus　in　the　year
  1689　did　England　acquire　an　amount　of　liberty　unknown　in
  any　other　country　of　Europe。
  But　it　is　not　only　on　account　of　this　great　liberal　measure
  that　the　rule　of　William　in　England　is　still　remembered。　During
  his　lifetime；　government　by　a　‘‘responsible''　ministry　first
  developed。　No　king　of　course　can　rule　alone。　He　needs　a　few
  trusted　advisors。　The　Tudors　had　their　Great　Council　which
  was　composed　of　Nobles　and　Clergy。　This　body　grew　too
  large。　It　was　restricted　to　the　small　‘‘Privy　Council。''　In　the
  course　of　time　it　became　the　custom　of　these　councillors　to　meet
  the　king　in　a　cabinet　in　the　palace。　Hence　they　were　called
  the　‘‘Cabinet　Council。''　After　a　short　while　they　were　known
  as　the　‘‘Cabinet。''
  William；　like　most　English　sovereigns　before　him；　had
  chosen　his　advisors　from　among　all　parties。　But　with　the　increased
  strength　of　Parliament；　he　had　found　it　impossible　to
  direct　the　politics　of　the　country　with　the　help　of　the　Tories
  while　the　Whigs　had　a　majority　in　the　house　of　Commons。
  Therefore　the　Tories　had　been　dismissed　and　the　Cabinet　Council
  had　been　composed　entirely　of　Whigs。　A　few　years　later
  when　the　Whigs　lost　their　power　in　the　House　of　Commons；　the
  king；　for　the　sake　of　convenience；　was　obliged　to　look　for　his
  support　among　the　leading　Tories。　Until　his　death　in　1702；
  William　was　too　busy　fighting　Louis　of　France　to　bother　much
  about　the　government　of　England。　Practically　all　important
  affairs　had　been　left　to　his　Cabinet　Council。　When　William's
  sister…in…law；　Anne；　succeeded　him　in　1702　this　condition　of
  affairs　continued。　When　she　died　in　1714　（and　unfortunately
  not　a　single　one　of　her　seventeen　children　survived　her）　the
  throne　went　to　George　I　of　the　House　of　Hanover；　the　son　of
  Sophie；　grand…daughter　of　James　I。
  This　somewhat　rustic　monarch；　who　never　learned　a　word
  of　English；　was　entirely　lost　in　the　complicated　mazes　of　England's
  political　arrangements。　He　left　everything　to　his　Cabinet
  Council　and　kept　away　from　their　meetings；　which　bored
  him　as　he　did　not　understand　a　single　sentence。　In　this　way
  the　Cabinet　got　into　the　habit　of　ruling　England　and　Scotla