In　the　year　1603　the　old　lady　died　at　the　age　of　seventy。
  Her　cousin；　the　great…grandson　of　her　own　grandfather　Henry
  VII　and　son　of　Mary　Stuart；　her　rival　and　enemy；　succeeded
  her　as　James　I。　By　the　Grace　of　God；　he　found　himself　the
  ruler　of　a　country　which　had　escaped　the　fate　of　its　continental
  rivals。　While　the　European　Protestants　and　Catholics　were
  killing　each　other　in　a　hopeless　attempt　to　break　the　power　of
  their　adversaries　and　establish　the　exclusive　rule　of　their　own
  particular　creed；　England　was　at　peace　and　‘‘reformed''　at
  leisure　without　going　to　the　extremes　of　either　Luther　or
  Loyola。　It　gave　the　island　kingdom　an　enormous　advantage　in
  the　coming　struggle　for　colonial　possessions。　It　assured　England
  a　leadership　in　international　affairs　which　that　country
  has　maintained　until　the　present　day。　Not　even　the　disastrous
  adventure　with　the　Stuarts　was　able　to　stop　this　normal　development。
  The　Stuarts；　who　succeeded　the　Tudors；　were　‘‘foreigners''
  in　England。　They　do　not　seem　to　have　appreciated　or　understood
  this　fact。　The　native　house　of　Tudor　could　steal　a　horse；
  but　the　‘‘foreign''　Stuarts　were　not　allowed　to　look　at　the
  bridle　without　causing　great　popular　disapproval。　Old　Queen
  Bess　had　ruled　her　domains　very　much　as　she　pleased。　In
  general　however；　she　had　always　followed　a　policy　which　meant
  money　in　the　pocket　of　the　honest　（and　otherwise）　British
  merchants。　Hence　the　Queen　had　been　always　assured　of　the
  wholehearted　support　of　her　grateful　people。　And　small　liberties
  taken　with　some　of　the　rights　and　prerogatives　of　Parliament
  were　gladly　overlooked　for　the　ulterior　benefits　which
  were　derived　from　her　Majesty's　strong　and　successful　foreign
  policies。
  Outwardly　King　James　continued　the　same　policy。　But　he
  lacked　that　personal　enthusiasm　which　had　been　so　very　typical
  of　his　great　predecessor。　Foreign　commerce　continued　to　be
  encouraged。　The　Catholics　were　not　granted　any　liberties。
  But　when　Spain　smiled　pleasantly　upon　England　in　an　effort
  to　establish　peaceful　relations；　James　was　seen　to　smile　back。
  The　majority　of　the　English　people　did　not　like　this；　but
  James　was　their　King　and　they　kept　quiet。
  Soon　there　were　other　causes　of　friction。　King　James　and
  his　son；　Charles　I；　who　succeeded　him　in　the　year　1625　both
  firmly　believed　in　the　principle　of　their　‘‘divine　right''　to
  administer　their　realm　as　they　thought　fit　without　consulting　the
  wishes　of　their　subjects。　The　idea　was　not　new。　The　Popes；
  who　in　more　than　one　way　had　been　the　successors　of　the
  Roman　Emperors　（or　rather　of　the　Roman　Imperial　ideal　of
  a　single　and　undivided　state　covering　the　entire　known　world）；
  had　always　regarded　themselves　and　had　been　publicly　recognised
  as　the　‘‘Vice…Regents　of　Christ　upon　Earth。''　No　one
  questioned　the　right　of　God　to　rule　the　world　as　He　saw　fit。
  As　a　natural　result；　few　ventured　to　doubt　the　right　of　the
  divine　‘‘Vice…Regent''　to　do　the　same　thing　and　to　demand　the
  obedience　of　the　masses　because　he　was　the　direct　representative
  of　the　Absolute　Ruler　of　the　Universe　and　responsible
  only　to　Almighty　God。
  When　the　Lutheran　Reformation　proved　successful；　those
  rights　which　formerly　had　been　invested　in　the　Papacy　were
  taken　over　by　the　many　European　sovereigns　who　became
  Protestants。　As　head　of　their　own　national　or　dynastic
  churches　they　insisted　upon　being　‘‘Christ's　Vice…Regents''
  within　the　limit　of　their　own　territory。　The　people　did　not　question
  the　right　of　their　rulers　to　take　such　a　step。　They　accepted
  it；　just　as　we　in　our　own　day　accept　the　idea　of　a　representative
  system　which　to　us　seems　the　only　reasonable　and　just
  form　of　government。　It　is　unfair　therefore　to　state　that　either
  Lutheranism　or　Calvinism　caused　the　particular　feeling　of
  irritation　which　greeted　King…James's　oft　and　loudly　repeated
  assertion　of　his　‘‘Divine　Right。''　There　must　have　been　other
  grounds　for　the　genuine　English　disbelief　in　the　Divine　Right
  of　Kings。
  The　first　positive　denial　of　the　‘‘Divine　Right''　of　sovereigns
  had　been　heard　in　the　Netherlands　when　the　Estates　General
  abjured　their　lawful　sovereign　King　Philip　II　of　Spain；　in　the
  year　1581。　‘‘The　King；''　so　they　said；　‘‘has　broken　his　contract
  and　the　King　therefore　is　dismissed　like　any　other　unfaithful
  servant。''　Since　then；　this　particular　idea　of　a　king's
  responsibilities　towards　his　subjects　had　spread　among　many　of　the
  nations　who　inhabited　the　shores　of　the　North　Sea。　They　were
  in　a　very　favourable　position。　They　were　rich。　The　poor　people
  in　the　heart　of　central　Europe；　at　the　mercy　of　their
  Ruler's　body…guard；　could　not　afford　to　discuss　a　problem
  which　would　at　once　land　them　in　the　deepest　dungeon　of　the
  nearest　castle。　But　the　merchants　of　Holland　and　England
  who　possessed　the　capital　necessary　for　the　maintenance　of
  great　armies　and　navies；　who　knew　how　to　handle　the　almighty
  weapon　called　‘‘credit；''　had　no　such　fear。　They　were　willing
  to　pit　the　‘‘Divine　Right''　of　their　own　good　money　against
  the　‘‘Divine　Right''　of　any　Habsburg　or　Bourbon　or　Stuart。
  They　knew　that　their　guilders　and　shillings　could　beat　the
  clumsy　feudal　armies　which　were　the　only　weapons　of　the　King。
  They　dared　to　act；　where　others　were　condemned　to　suffer
  in　silence　or　run　the　risk　of　the　scaffold。
  When　the　Stuarts　began　to　annoy　the　people　of　England
  with　their　claim　that　they　had　a　right　to　do　what　they　pleased
  and　never　mind　the　responsibility；　the　English　middle　classes
  used　the　House　of　Commons　as　their　first　line　of　defence
  against　this　abuse　of　the　Royal　Power。　The　Crown　refused　to
  give　in　and　the　King　sent　Parliament　about　its　own　business。
  Eleven　long　years；　Charles　I　ruled　alone。　He　levied　taxes
  which　most　people　regarded　as　illegal　and　he　managed　his
  British　kingdom　as　if　it　had　been　his　own　country　estate。　He
  had　capable　assistants　and　we　must　say　that　he　had　the　courage
  of　his　convictions。
  Unfortunately；　instead　of　assuring　himself　of　the　support
  of　his　faithful　Scottish　subjects；　Charles　became　involved　in
  a　quarrel　with　the　Scotch　Presbyterians。　Much　against　his
  will；　but　forced　by　his　need　for　ready　cash；　Charles　was　at
  last　obliged　to　call　Parliament　together　once　more。　It　met　in
  April　of　1640　and　showed　an　ugly　temper。　It　was　dissolved
  a　few　weeks　later。　A　new　Parliament　convened　in　November。
  This　one　was　even　less　pliable　than　the　first　one。　The　members
  understood　that　the　question　of　‘‘Government　by　Divine
  Right''　or　‘‘Government　by　Parliament''　must　be　fought　out
  for　good　and　all。　They　attacked　the　King　in　his　chief　councillors
  and　executed　half　a　dozen　of　them。　They　announced　that
  they　would　not　allow　themselves　to　be　dissolved　without　their
  own　approval。　Finally　on　December　1；　1641；　they　presented
  to　the　King　a　‘‘Grand　Remonstrance''　which　gave　a　detailed
  account　of　the　many　grievances　of　the　people　against　their　Ruler。
  Charles；　hoping　to　derive　some　support　for　his　own　policy
  in　the　country　districts；　left　London　in　January　of　1642。　Each
  side　organised　an　army　and　prepared　for　open　warfare　between
  the　absolute　power　of　the　crown　and　the　absolute　power
  of　Parliament。　During　this　struggle；　the　most　powerful　religious
  element　of　England；　called　the　Puritans；　（they　were
  Anglicans　who　had　tried　to　purify　their　doctrines　to　the　most
  absolute　limits）；　came　quickly　to　the　front。　The　regiments　of
  ‘‘Godly　men；''　commanded　by　Oliver　Cromwell；　with　their
  iron　discipline　and　their　profound　confidence　in　the　holiness　of
  their　aims；　soon　became　the　model　for　the　entire　army　of　the
  opposition。　Twice　Charles　was　defeated。　After　the　battle
  of　Naseby；　in　1645；　he　fled　to　Scotland。　The　Scotch　sold　him
  to　the　English。
  There　followed　a　period　of　intrigue　and　an　uprising
  of　the　Scotch　Presbyterians　against　the　English　Puritan。
  In　August　of　the　year　1648　after　the　three…days'　battle　of
  Preston　Pans；　Cromwell　made　an　end　to　this　second　civil　war；
  and　took　Edinburgh。　Meanwhile　his　soldiers；　tired　of　further
  talk　and　wasted　hours　of　religious　debate；　had　decided　to　act
  on　their　own　initiative。　They　removed　from　Parliament　all
  those　who　did　not　agree　with　their　own　Puritan　views。　Thereupon
  the　‘‘Rump；''　which　was　what　was　left　of　the　old　Parliament；
  accused　the　King　of　high　treason。　The　House　of　Lords
  refused　to　sit　as　a　tribunal。　A　special　tribunal　was　appointed
  and　it　condemned　the　King　to　death。　On　the　30th　of　January
  of　the　year　1649；　King　Charles　walked　quietly　out　of　a　window
  of　White　Hall　onto　the　scaffold。　That　day；　the　Sovereign
  People；　acting　through　their　chosen　representatives；　for　the
  first　time　executed　a　ruler　who　had　failed　to　understand　his　own
  position　in　the　modern　state。
  The　period　which　followed　the　death　of　Charles　is　usually
  called　after　Oliver　Cromwell。　At　first　the　unofficial　Dictator
  of　England；　he　was　officially　made　Lord　Protector　in　the　year
  1653。　He　ruled　five　years。　He　used　th