were　then　used　to　carry　the　wheat　of　northern　and　central　Russia
  to　southern　and　western　Europe。　On　the　return　voyage
  they　brought　spices　and　silks　and　carpets　and　Oriental　rugs
  from　Venice　and　Genoa　to　Bruges　and　Hamburg　and　Bremen。
  Out　of　such　simple　beginnings　there　developed　an　important
  system　of　international　trade　which　reached　from　the
  manufacturing　cities　of　Bruges　and　Ghent　（where　the　almighty
  guilds　fought　pitched　battles　with　the　kings　of　France　and
  England　and　established　a　labour　tyranny　which　completely
  ruined　both　the　employers　and　the　workmen）　to　the　Republic
  of　Novgorod　in　northern　Russia；　which　was　a　mighty　city　until
  Tsar　Ivan；　who　distrusted　all　merchants；　took　the　town　and
  killed　sixty　thousand　people　in　less　than　a　month's　time　and
  reduced　the　survivors　to　beggary。
  That　they　might　protect　themselves　against　pirates　and
  excessive　tolls　and　annoying　legislation；　the　merchants　of　the
  north　founded　a　protective　league　which　was　called　the
  ‘‘Hansa。''　The　Hansa；　which　had　its　headquarters　in　Lubeck；
  was　a　voluntary　association　of　more　than　one　hundred　cities。
  The　association　maintained　a　navy　of　its　own　which　patrolled
  the　seas　and　fought　and　defeated　the　Kings　of　England　and
  Denmark　when　they　dared　to　interfere　with　the　rights　and　the
  privileges　of　the　mighty　Hanseatic　merchants。
  I　wish　that　I　had　more　space　to　tell　you　some　of　the　wonderful
  stories　of　this　strange　commerce　which　was　carried　on
  across　the　high　mountains　and　across　the　deep　seas　amidst
  such　dangers　that　every　voyage　became　a　glorious　adventure。
  But　it　would　take　several　volumes　and　it　cannot　be　done　here。
  Besides；　I　hope　that　I　have　told　you　enough　about　the　Middle
  Ages　to　make　you　curious　to　read　more　in　the　excellent　books
  of　which　I　shall　give　you　a　list　at　the　end　of　this　volume。
  The　Middle　Ages；　as　I　have　tried　to　show　you；　had　been　a
  period　of　very　slow　progress。　The　people　who　were　in　power
  believed　that　‘‘progress''　was　a　very　undesirable　invention　of
  the　Evil　One　and　ought　to　be　discouraged；　and　as　they　hap…
  pened　to　occupy　the　seats　of　the　mighty；　it　was　easy　to　enforce
  their　will　upon　the　patient　serfs　and　the　illiterate　knights。
  Here　and　there　a　few　brave　souls　sometimes　ventured　forth　into
  the　forbidden　region　of　science；　but　they　fared　badly　and　were
  considered　lucky　when　they　escaped　with　their　lives　and　a　jail
  sentence　of　twenty　years。
  In　the　twelfth　and　thirteenth　centuries　the　flood　of
  international　commerce　swept　over　western　Europe　as　the　Nile
  had　swept　across　the　valley　of　ancient　Egypt。　It　left　behind
  a　fertile　sediment　of　prosperity。　Prosperity　meant　leisure
  hours　and　these　leisure　hours　gave　both　men　and　women　a
  chance　to　buy　manuscripts　and　take　an　interest　in　literature
  and　art　and　music。
  Then　once　more　was　the　world　filled　with　that　divine　curiosity
  which　has　elevated　man　from　the　ranks　of　those　other
  mammals　who　are　his　distant　cousins　but　who　have　remained
  dumb；　and　the　cities；　of　whose　growth　and　development　I　have
  told　you　in　my　last　chapter；　offered　a　safe　shelter　to　these
  brave　pioneers　who　dared　to　leave　the　very　narrow　domain
  of　the　established　order　of　things。
  They　set　to　work。　They　opened　the　windows　of　their
  cloistered　and　studious　cells。　A　flood　of　sunlight　entered　the
  dusty　rooms　and　showed　them　the　cobwebs　which　had　gathered
  during　the　long　period　of　semi…darkness。
  They　began　to　clean　house。　Next　they　cleaned　their　gardens。
  Then　they　went　out　into　the　open　fields；　outside　the　crumbling
  town　walls；　and　said；　‘‘This　is　a　good　world。　We　are
  glad　that　we　live　in　it。''
  At　that　moment；　the　Middle　Ages　came　to　an　end　and　a　new
  world　began。
  THE　RENAISSANCE
  PEOPLE　ONCE　MORE　DARED　TO　BE　HAPPY
  JUST　BECAUSE　THEY　WERE　ALIVE。　THEY
  TRIED　TO　SAVE　THE　REMAINS　OF　THE
  OLDER　AND　MORE　AGREEABLE　CIVILISATION
  OF　ROME　AND　GREECE　AND　THEY
  WERE　SO　PROUD　OF　THEIR　ACHIEVEMENTS
  THAT　THEY　SPOKE　OF　A　RENAISSANCE
  OR　RE…BIRTH　OF　CIVILISATION
  THE　Renaissance　was　not　a　political　or　religious　movement。
  It　was　a　state　of　mind。
  The　men　of　the　Renaissance　continued　to　be　the　obedient
  sons　of　the　mother　church。　They　were　subjects　of　kings　and
  emperors　and　dukes　and　murmured　not。
  But　their　outlook　upon　life　was　changed。　They　began　to
  wear　different　clothesto　speak　a　different　languageto　live
  different　lives　in　different　houses。
  They　no　longer　concentrated　all　their　thoughts　and　their
  efforts　upon　the　blessed　existence　that　awaited　them　in　Heaven。
  They　tried　to　establish　their　Paradise　upon　this　planet；　and；
  truth　to　tell；　they　succeeded　in　a　remarkable　degree。
  I　have　quite　often　warned　you　against　the　danger　that
  lies　in　historical　dates。　People　take　them　too　literally。　They
  think　of　the　Middle　Ages　as　a　period　of　darkness　and　ignor…
  ance。　‘‘Click；''　says　the　clock；　and　the　Renaissance　begins　and
  cities　and　palaces　are　flooded　with　the　bright　sunlight　of　an
  eager　intellectual　curiosity。
  As　a　matter　of　fact；　it　is　quite　impossible　to　draw　such
  sharp　lines。　The　thirteenth　century　belonged　most　decidedly
  to　the　Middle　Ages。　All　historians　agree　upon　that。　But　was
  it　a　time　of　darkness　and　stagnation　merely？　By　no　means。
  People　were　tremendously　alive。　Great　states　were　being
  founded。　Large　centres　of　commerce　were　being　developed。
  High　above　the　turretted　towers　of　the　castle　and　the　peaked
  roof　of　the　town…hall；　rose　the　slender　spire　of　the　newly　built
  Gothic　cathedral。　Everywhere　the　world　was　in　motion。　The
  high　and　mighty　gentlemen　of　the　city…hall；　who　had　just　become
  conscious　of　their　own　strength　（by　way　of　their　recently
  acquired　riches）　were　struggling　for　more　power　with　their
  feudal　masters。　The　members　of　the　guilds　who　had　just　become
  aware　of　the　important　fact　that　‘‘numbers　count''　were
  fighting　the　high　and　mighty　gentlemen　of　the　city…hall。　The
  king　and　his　shrewd　advisers　went　fishing　in　these　troubled
  waters　and　caught　many　a　shining　bass　of　profit　which　they
  proceeded　to　cook　and　eat　before　the　noses　of　the　surprised　and
  disappointed　councillors　and　guild　brethren。
  To　enliven　the　scenery　during　the　long　hours　of　evening
  when　the　badly　lighted　streets　did　not　invite　further　political
  and　economic　dispute；　the　Troubadours　and　Minnesingers　told
  their　stories　and　sang　their　songs　of　romance　and　adventure
  and　heroism　and　loyalty　to　all　fair　women。　Meanwhile　youth；
  impatient　of　the　slowness　of　progress；　flocked　to　the　universities；
  and　thereby　hangs　a　story。
  The　Middle　Ages　were　‘‘internationally　minded。''　That
  sounds　difficult；　but　wait　until　I　explain　it　to　you。　We　modern
  people　are　‘‘nationally　minded。''　We　are　Americans　or　Englishmen
  or　Frenchmen　or　Italians　and　speak　English　or　French
  or　Italian　and　go　to　English　and　French　and　Italian　universities；
  unless　we　want　to　specialise　in　some　particular　branch
  of　learning　which　is　only　taught　elsewhere；　and　then　we　learn
  another　language　and　go　to　Munich　or　Madrid　or　Moscow。
  But　the　people　of　the　thirteenth　or　fourteenth　century　rarely
  talked　of　themselves　as　Englishmen　or　Frenchmen　or　Italians。
  They　said；　‘‘I　am　a　citizen　of　Sheffield　or　Bordeaux　or　Genoa。''
  Because　they　all　belonged　to　one　and　the　same　church　they　felt
  a　certain　bond　of　brotherhood。　And　as　all　educated　men　could
  speak　Latin；　they　possessed　an　international　language　which
  removed　the　stupid　language　barriers　which　have　grown　up
  in　modern　Europe　and　which　place　the　small　nations　at　such
  an　enormous　disadvantage。　Just　as　an　example；　take　the　case
  of　Erasmus；　the　great　preacher　of　tolerance　and　laughter；　who
  wrote　his　books　in　the　sixteenth　century。　He　was　the　native
  of　a　small　Dutch　village。　He　wrote　in　Latin　and　all　the　world
  was　his　audience。　If　he　were　alive　to…day；　he　would　write　in
  Dutch。　Then　only　five　or　six　million　people　would　be　able　to
  read　him。　To　be　understood　by　the　rest　of　Europe　and　America；
  his　publishers　would　be　obliged　to　translate　his　books　into
  twenty　different　languages。　That　would　cost　a　lot　of　money
  and　most　likely　the　publishers　would　never　take　the　trouble
  or　the　risk。
  Six　hundred　years　ago　that　could　not　happen。　The　greater
  part　of　the　people　were　still　very　ignorant　and　could　not　read
  or　write　at　all。　But　those　who　had　mastered　the　difficult　art
  of　handling　the　goose…quill　belonged　to　an　international　republic
  of　letters　which　spread　across　the　entire　continent　and　which
  knew　of　no　boundaries　and　respected　no　limitations　of　language
  or　nationality。　The　universities　were　the　strongholds　of
  this　republic。　Unlike　modern　fortifications；　they　did　not　follow
  the　frontier。　They　were　to　be　found　wherever　a　teacher
  and　a　few　pupils　happened　to　find　themselves　together。　There
  again　the　Middle　Ages　and　the　Renaissance　differed　from　our
  own　time。　Nowadays；　when　a　new　university　is　built；　the
  process　（almost　invariably）　is　as　follows：　Some　rich　man