that　they　were　here　to　be　prepared　for　a　greater　and　more
  important　life。　Deliberately　they　turned　their　backs　upon　a
  world　which　was　filled　with　suffering　and　wickedness　and
  injustice。　They　pulled　down　the　blinds　that　the　rays　of　the
  sun　might　not　distract　their　attention　from　that　chapter　in　the
  Apocalypse　which　told　them　of　that　heavenly　light　which　was
  to　illumine　their　happiness　in　all　eternity。　They　tried　to　close
  their　eyes　to　most　of　the　joys　of　the　world　in　which　they　lived
  that　they　might　enjoy　those　which　awaited　them　in　the　near
  future。　They　accepted　life　as　a　necessary　evil　and　welcomed
  death　as　the　beginning　of　a　glorious　day。
  The　Greeks　and　the　Romans　had　never　bothered　about　the
  future　but　had　tried　to　establish　their　Paradise　right　here　upon
  this　earth。　They　had　succeeded　in　making　life　extremely　pleasant
  for　those　of　their　fellow　men　who　did　not　happen　to　be
  slaves。　Then　came　the　other　extreme　of　the　Middle　Ages；
  when　man　built　himself　a　Paradise　beyond　the　highest　clouds
  and　turned　this　world　into　a　vale　of　tears　for　high　and　low；
  for　rich　and　poor；　for　the　intelligent　and　the　dumb。　It　was
  time　for　the　pendulum　to　swing　back　in　the　other　direction；　as
  I　shall　tell　you　in　my　next　chapter。
  MEDIAEVAL　TRADE
  HOW　THE　CRUSADES　ONCE　MORE　MADE　THE
  MEDITERRANEAN　A　BUSY　CENTRE　OF
  TRADE　AND　HOW　THE　CITIES　OF　THE
  ITALIAN　PENINSULA　BECAME　THE　GREAT
  DISTRIBUTING　CENTRE　FOR　THE　COMMERCE
  WITH　ASIA　AND　AFRICA
  THERE　were　three　good　reasons　why　the　Italian　cities　should
  have　been　the　first　to　regain　a　position　of　great　importance
  during　the　late　Middle　Ages。　The　Italian　peninsula　had　been
  settled　by　Rome　at　a　very　early　date。　There　had　been　more
  roads　and　more　towns　and　more　schools　than　anywhere　else
  in　Europe。
  The　barbarians　had　burned　as　lustily　in　Italy　as　elsewhere；
  but　there　had　been　so　much　to　destroy　that　more　had　been　able
  to　survive。　In　the　second　place；　the　Pope　lived　in　Italy　and
  as　the　head　of　a　vast　political　machine；　which　owned　land　and
  serfs　and　buildings　and　forests　and　rivers　and　conducted　courts
  of　law；　he　was　in　constant　receipt　of　a　great　deal　of　money。
  The　Papal　authorities　had　to　be　paid　in　gold　and　silver　as　did
  the　merchants　and　ship…owners　of　Venice　and　Genoa。　The
  cows　and　the　eggs　and　the　horses　and　all　the　other　agricultural
  products　of　the　north　and　the　west　must　be　changed　into　actual
  cash　before　the　debt　could　be　paid　in　the　distant　city　of　Rome。
  This　made　Italy　the　one　country　where　there　was　a　comparative
  abundance　of　gold　and　silver。　Finally；　during　the　Crusades；
  the　Italian　cities　had　become　the　point　of　embarkation
  for　the　Crusaders　and　had　profiteered　to　an　almost　unbelievable
  extent。
  And　after　the　Crusades　had　come　to　an　end；　these　same
  Italian　cities　remained　the　distributing　centres　for　those　Oriental
  goods　upon　which　the　people　of　Europe　had　come　to　depend
  during　the　time　they　had　spent　in　the　near　east。
  Of　these　towns；　few　were　as　famous　as　Venice。　Venice　was
  a　republic　built　upon　a　mud　bank。　Thither　people　from　the
  mainland　had　fled　during　the　invasions　of　the　barbarians　in　the
  fourth　century。　Surrounded　on　all　sides　by　the　sea　they　had
  engaged　in　the　business　of　salt…making。　Salt　had　been　very
  scarce　during　the　Middle　Ages；　and　the　price　had　been　high。
  For　hundreds　of　years　Venice　had　enjoyed　a　monopoly　of
  this　indispensable　table　commodity　（I　say　indispensable；　because
  people；　like　sheep；　fall　ill　unless　they　get　a　certain　amount
  of　salt　in　their　food）。　The　people　had　used　this　monopoly　to
  increase　the　power　of　their　city。　At　times　they　had　even　dared
  to　defy　the　power　of　the　Popes。　The　town　had　grown　rich　and
  had　begun　to　build　ships；　which　engaged　in　trade　with　the
  Orient。　During　the　Crusades；　these　ships　were　used　to　carry
  passengers　to　the　Holy　Land；　and　when　the　passengers　could
  not　pay　for　their　tickets　in　cash；　they　were　obliged　to　help　the
  Venetians　who　were　for　ever　increasing　their　colonies　in　the
  AEgean　Sea；　in　Asia　Minor　and　in　Egypt。
  By　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century；　the　population　had
  grown　to　two　hundred　thousand；　which　made　Venice　the　biggest
  city　of　the　Middle　Ages。　The　people　were　without　influence
  upon　the　government　which　was　the　private　affair　of　a
  small　number　of　rich　merchant　families。　They　elected　a　senate
  and　a　Doge　（or　Duke）；　but　the　actual　rulers　of　the　city　were
  the　members　of　the　famous　Council　of　Ten；who　maintained
  themselves　with　the　help　of　a　highly　organised　system　of　secret
  service　men　and　professional　murderers；　who　kept　watch　upon
  all　citizens　and　quietly　removed　those　who　might　be　dangerous
  to　the　safety　of　their　high…handed　and　unscrupulous　Committee
  of　Public　Safety。
  The　other　extreme　of　government；　a　democracy　of　very
  turbulent　habits；　was　to　be　found　in　Florence。　This　city
  controlled　the　main　road　from　northern　Europe　to　Rome　and　used
  the　money　which　it　had　derived　from　this　fortunate　economic
  position　to　engage　in　manufacturing。　The　Florentines　tried　to
  follow　the　example　of　Athens。　Noblemen；　priests　and　members
  of　the　guilds　all　took　part　in　the　discussions　of　civic　affairs。
  This　led　to　great　civic　upheaval。　People　were　forever　being　divided
  into　political　parties　and　these　parties　fought　each　other
  with　intense　bitterness　and　exiled　their　enemies　and　confiscated
  their　possessions　as　soon　as　they　had　gained　a　victory　in　the
  council。　After　several　centuries　of　this　rule　by　organised　mobs；
  the　inevitable　happened。　A　powerful　family　made　itself　master
  of　the　city　and　governed　the　town　and　the　surrounding　country
  after　the　fashion　of　the　old　Greek　‘‘tyrants。''　They　were　called
  the　Medici。　The　earliest　Medici　had　been　physicians　（medicus
  is　Latin　for　physician；　hence　their　name）；　but　later　they　had
  turned　banker。　Their　banks　and　their　pawnshops　were　to　be
  found　in　all　the　more　important　centres　of　trade。　Even　today
  our　American　pawn…shops　display　the　three　golden　balls
  which　were　part　of　the　coat　of　arms　of　the　mighty　house　of
  the　Medici；　who　became　rulers　of　Florence　and　married　their
  daughters　to　the　kings　of　France　and　were　buried　in　graves
  worthy　of　a　Roman　Caesar。
  Then　there　was　Genoa；　the　great　rival　of　Venice；　where
  the　merchants　specialised　in　trade　with　Tunis　in　Africa　and
  the　grain　depots　of　the　Black　Sea。　Then　there　were　more　than
  two　hundred　other　cities；　some　large　and　some　small；　each　a　perfect
  commercial　unit；　all　of　them　fighting　their　neighbours　and
  rivals　with　the　undying　hatred　of　neighbours　who　are　depriving
  each　other　of　their　profits。
  Once　the　products　of　the　Orient　and　Africa　had　been
  brought　to　these　distributing　centres；　they　must　be　prepared
  for　the　voyage　to　the　west　and　the　north。
  Genoa　carried　her　goods　by　water　to　Marseilles；　from　where
  they　were　reshipped　to　the　cities　along　the　Rhone；　which　in
  turn　served　as　the　market　places　of　northern　and　western
  France。
  Venice　used　the　land　route　to　northern　Europe。　This　ancient
  road　led　across　the　Brenner　pass；　the　old　gateway　for
  the　barbarians　who　had　invaded　Italy。　Past　Innsbruck；　the
  merchandise　was　carried　to　Basel。　From　there　it　drifted　down
  the　Rhine　to　the　North　Sea　and　England；　or　it　was　taken　to
  Augsburg　where　the　Fugger　family　（who　were　both　bankers
  and　manufacturers　and　who　prospered　greatly　by　‘‘shaving''
  the　coins　with　which　they　paid　their　workmen）；　looked　after
  the　further　distribution　to　Nuremberg　and　Leipzig　and　the
  cities　of　the　Baltic　and　to　Wisby　（on　the　Island　of　Gotland）
  which　looked　after　the　needs　of　the　Northern　Baltic　and　dealt
  directly　with　the　Republic　of　Novgorod；　the　old　commercial
  centre　of　Russia　which　was　destroyed　by　Ivan　the　Terrible　in
  the　middle　of　the　sixteenth　century。
  The　little　cities　on　the　coast　of　north…western　Europe　had
  an　interesting　story　of　their　own。　The　mediaeval　world　ate　a
  great　deal　of　fish。　There　were　many　fast　days　and　then　people
  were　not　permitted　to　eat　meat。　For　those　who　lived　away
  from　the　coast　and　from　the　rivers；　this　meant　a　diet　of　eggs
  or　nothing　at　all。　But　early　in　the　thirteenth　century　a　Dutch
  fisherman　had　discovered　a　way　of　curing　herring；　so　that　it
  could　be　transported　to　distant　points。　The　herring　fisheries
  of　the　North　Sea　then　became　of　great　importance。　But　some
  time　during　the　thirteenth　century；　this　useful　little　fish　（for
  reasons　of　its　own）　moved　from　the　North　Sea　to　the　Baltic　and
  the　cities　of　that　inland　sea　began　to　make　money。　All　the
  world　now　sailed　to　the　Baltic　to　catch　herring　and　as　that　fish
  could　only　be　caught　during　a　few　months　each　year　（the　rest
  of　the　time　it　spends　in　deep　water；　raising　large　families　of
  little　herrings）　the　ships　would　have　been　idle　during　the　rest
  of　the　time　unless　they　had　found　another　occupation。　They
  were　then　used　to　carry　the　wheat　of　northern　and　central　Russia
  to　southern　and　western　Europe。　On　the　return　voyage
  they　b