merchants。　It　was　a　charter　of　great　importance　because　it　defined
  the　powers　of　the　king　with　more　precision　than　had　ever　been
  done　before。　But　it　was　still　a　purely　mediaeval　document。　It
  did　not　refer　to　common　human　beings；　unless　they　happened　to
  be　the　property　of　the　vassal；　which　must　be　safe…guarded
  against　royal　tyranny　just　as　the　Baronial　woods　and　cows
  were　protected　against　an　excess　of　zeal　on　the　part　of　the
  royal　foresters。
  A　few　years　later；　however；　we　begin　to　hear　a　very　different
  note　in　the　councils　of　His　Majesty。
  John；　who　was　bad；　both　by　birth　and　inclination；　solemnly
  had　promised　to　obey　the　great　charter　and　then　had　broken
  every　one　of　its　many　stipulations。　Fortunately；　he　soon　died
  and　was　succeeded　by　his　son　Henry　III；　who　was　forced　to
  recognise　the　charter　anew。　Meanwhile；　Uncle　Richard；　the
  Crusader；　had　cost　the　country　a　great　deal　of　money　and　the
  king　was　obliged　to　ask　for　a　few　loans　that　he　might　pay　his
  obligations　to　the　Jewish　money…lenders。　The　large　land…owners
  and　the　bishops　who　acted　as　councillors　to　the　king　could
  not　provide　him　with　the　necessary　gold　and　silver。　The　king
  then　gave　orders　that　a　few　representatives　of　the　cities　be
  called　upon　to　attend　the　sessions　of　his　Great　Council。　They
  made　their　first　appearance　in　the　year　1265。　They　were　supposed
  to　act　only　as　financial　experts　who　were　not　supposed
  to　take　a　part　in　the　general　discussion　of　matters　of　state；　but
  to　give　advice　exclusively　upon　the　question　of　taxation。
  Gradually；　however；　these　representatives　of　the　‘‘commons''
  were　consulted　upon　many　of　the　problems　and　the　meeting
  of　noblemen；　bishops　and　city　delegates　developed　into　a　regular
  Parliament；　a　place　‘‘ou　l'on　parfait；''　which　means　in　English
  where　people　talked；　before　important　affairs　of　state　were
  decided　upon。
  But　the　institution　of　such　a　general　advisory…board　with
  certain　executive　powers　was　not　an　English　invention；　as
  seems　to　ke　the　general　belief；　and　government　by　a　‘‘king　and
  his　parliament''　was　by　no　means　restricted　to　the　British　Isles。
  You　will　find　it　in　every　part　of　Europe。　In　some　countries；
  like　France；　the　rapid　increase　of　the　Royal　power　after　the
  Middle　Ages　reduced　the　influence　of　the　‘‘parliament''　to　nothing。
  In　the　year　1302　representatives　of　the　cities　had　been
  admitted　to　the　meeting　of　the　French　Parliament；　but　five
  centuries　had　to　pass　before　this　‘‘Parliament''　was　strong
  enough　to　assert　the　rights　of　the　middle　class；　the　so…called
  Third　Estate；　and　break　the　power　of　the　king。　Then　they
  made　up　for　lost　time　and　during　the　French　Revolution；　abolished
  the　king；　the　clergy　and　the　nobles　and　made　the　representatives
  of　the　common　people　the　rulers　of　the　land。　In
  Spain　the　‘‘cortex''　（the　king's　council）　had　been　opened　to　the
  commoners　as　early　as　the　first　half　of　the　twelfth　century。
  In　the　Germain　Empire；　a　number　of　important　cities　had　obtained
  the　rank　of　‘‘imperial　cities''　whose　representatives　must
  be　heard　in　the　imperial　diet。
  In　Sweden；　representatives　of　the　people　attended　the　sessions
  of　the　Riksdag　at　the　first　meeting　of　the　year　1359。　In
  Denmark　the　Daneholf；　the　ancient　national　assembly；　was　re…
  established　in　1314；　and；　although　the　nobles　often　regained　control
  of　the　country　at　the　expense　of　the　king　and　the　people；
  the　representatives　of　the　cities　were　never　completely　deprived
  of　their　power。
  In　the　Scandinavian　country；　the　story　of　representative
  government　is　particularly　interesting。　In　Iceland；　the　‘‘Althing；''
  the　assembly　of　all　free　landowners；　who　managed　the
  affairs　of　the　island；　began　to　hold　regular　meetings　in　the　ninth
  century　and　continued　to　do　so　for　more　than　a　thousand
  years。
  In　Switzerland；　the　freemen　of　the　different　cantons　defended
  their　assemblies　against　the　attempts　of　a　number　of
  feudal　neighbours　with　great　success。
  Finally；　in　the　Low　Countries；　in　Holland；　the　councils　of
  the　different　duchies　and　counties　were　attended　by　representatives
  of　the　third　estate　as　early　as　the　thirteenth　century。
  In　the　sixteenth　century　a　number　of　these　small　provinces
  rebelled　against　their　king；　abjured　his　majesty　in　a　solemn
  meeting　of　the　‘‘Estates　General；''　removed　the　clergy　from
  the　discussions；　broke　the　power　of　the　nobles　and　assumed　full
  executive　authority　over　the　newly…established　Republic　of　the
  United　Seven　Netherlands。　For　two　centuries；　the　representatives
  of　the　town…councils　ruled　the　country　without　a　king；
  without　bishops　and　without　noblemen。　The　city　had　become
  supreme　and　the　good　burghers　had　become　the　rulers　of　the
  land。
  THE　MEDIAEVAL　WORLD
  WHAT　THE　PEOPLE　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES
  THOUGHT　OF　THE　WORLD　IN　WHICH
  THEY　HAPPENED　TO　LIVE
  DATES　are　a　very　useful　invention。　We　could　not　do　without
  them　but　unless　we　are　very　careful；　they　will　play　tricks
  with　us。　They　are　apt　to　make　history　too　precise。　For　example；
  when　I　talk　of　the　point…of…view　of　mediaeval　man；　I
  do　not　mean　that　on　the　31st　of　December　of　the　year　476；
  suddenly　all　the　people　of　Europe　said；　‘‘Ah；　now　the　Roman
  Empire　has　come　to　an　end　and　we　are　living　in　the　Middle
  Ages。　How　interesting！''
  You　could　have　found　men　at　the　Frankish　court　of　Charlemagne
  who　were　Romans　in　their　habits；　in　their　manners；　in
  their　out…look　upon　life。　On　the　other　hand；　when　you　grow
  up　you　will　discover　that　some　of　the　people　in　this　world　have
  never　passed　beyond　the　stage　of　the　cave…man。　All　times
  and　all　ages　overlap；　and　the　ideas　of　succeeding　generations
  play　tag　with　each　other。　But　it　is　possible　to　study　the　minds
  of　a　good　many　true　representatives　of　the　Middle　Ages　and
  then　give　you　an　idea　of　the　average　man's　attitude　toward
  life　and　the　many　difficult　problems　of　living。
  First　of　all；　remember　that　the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages
  never　thought　of　themselves　as　free…born　citizens；　who　could
  come　and　go　at　will　and　shape　their　fate　according　to　their
  ability　or　energy　or　luck。　On　the　contrary；　they　all　considered
  themselves　part　of　the　general　scheme　of　things；　which　included
  emperors　and　serfs；　popes　and　heretics；　heroes　and　swashbucklers；
  rich　men；　poor　men；　beggar　men　and　thieves。　They　accepted
  this　divine　ordinance　and　asked　no　questions。　In　this；
  of　course；　they　differed　radically　from　modern　people　who　accept
  nothing　and　who　are　forever　trying　to　improve　their　own
  financial　and　political　situation。
  To　the　man　and　woman　of　the　thirteenth　century；　the　world
  hereaftera　Heaven　of　wonderful　delights　and　a　Hell　of　brimstone
  and　sufferingmeant　something　more　than　empty　words
  or　vague　theological　phrases。　It　was　an　actual　fact　and　the
  mediaeval　burghers　and　knights　spent　the　greater　part　of　their
  time　preparing　for　it。　We　modern　people　regard　a　noble
  death　after　a　well…spent　life　with　the　quiet　calm　of　the　ancient
  Greeks　and　Romans。　After　three　score　years　of　work　and　effort；
  we　go　to　sleep　with　the　feeling　that　all　will　be　well。
  But　during　the　Middle　Ages；　the　King　of　Terrors　with
  his　grinning　skull　and　his　rattling　bones　was　man's　steady
  companion。　He　woke　his　victims　up　with　terrible　tunes　on　his
  scratchy　fiddle　he　sat　down　with　them　at　dinnerhe　smiled
  at　them　from　behind　trees　and　shrubs　when　they　took　a　girl
  out　for　a　walk。　If　you　had　heard　nothing　but　hair…raising
  yarns　about　cemeteries　and　coffins　and　fearful　diseases　when
  you　were　very　young；　instead　of　listening　to　the　fairy　stories
  of　Anderson　and　Grimm；　you；　too；　would　have　lived　all　your
  days　in　a　dread　of　the　final　hour　and　the　gruesome　day　of
  Judgment。　That　is　exactly　what　happened　to　the　children　of
  the　Middle　Ages。　They　moved　in　a　world　of　devils　and　spooks
  and　only　a　few　occasional　angels。　Sometimes；　their　fear　of
  the　future　filled　their　souls　with　humility　and　piety；　but　often
  it　influenced　them　the　other　way　and　made　them　cruel　and
  sentimental。　They　would　first　of　all　murder　all　the　women
  and　children　of　a　captured　city　and　then　they　would　devoutly
  march　to　a　holy　spot　and　with　their　hands　gory　with　the　blood
  of　innocent　victims；　they　would　pray　that　a　merciful　heaven　forgive
  them　their　sins。　Yea；　they　would　do　more　than　pray；　they
  would　weep　bitter　tears　and　would　confess　themselves　the　most
  wicked　of　sinners。　But　the　next　day；　they　would　once　more
  butcher　a　camp　of　Saracen　enemies　without　a　spark　of　mercy
  in　their　hearts。
  Of　course；　the　Crusaders　were　Knights　and　obeyed　a　somewhat
  different　code　of　manners　from　the　common　men。　But　in
  such　respects　the　common　man　was　just　the　same　as　his　master。
  He；　too；　resembled　a　shy　horse；　easily　frightened　by　a
  shadow　or　a　silly　piece　of　paper；　capable　of　excellent　and　faithful
  service　but　liable　to　run　away　and　do　terrible　damage　when
  his　feverish　imagination　saw　a　ghost。
  In　judging　these　good　people；　however；　it　is　wise　to　remember
  t