fish　in　his　brook。　Suppose　that　we　let　him　have　a　hundred
  ducats　and　that　he　give　us　in　return　a　written　guarantee　allowing
  us　to　fish　all　we　want　in　all　of　his　rivers。　Then　he　gets
  the　hundred　which　he　needs；　but　we　get　the　fish　and　it　will　be
  good　business　all　around。''
  The　day　his　Lordship　accepted　this　proposition　（it　seemed
  such　an　easy　way　of　getting　a　hundred　gold　pieces）　he　signed
  the　death…warrant　of　his　own　power。　His　clerk　drew　up　the
  agreement。　His　Lordship　made　his　mark　（for　he　could　not
  sign　his　name）　and　departed　for　the　East。　Two　years　later
  he　came　back；　dead　broke。　The　townspeople　were　fishing　in
  the　castle　pond。　The　sight　of　this　silent　row　of　anglers　annoyed
  his　Lordship。　He　told　his　equerry　to　go　and　chase　the　crowd
  away。　They　went；　but　that　night　a　delegation　of　merchants
  visited　the　castle。　They　were　very　polite。　They　congratulated
  his　Lordship　upon　his　safe　return。　They　were　sorry　his
  Lordship　had　been　annoyed　by　the　fishermen；　but　as　his　Lordship
  might　perhaps　remember　he　had　given　them　permission
  to　do　so　himself；　and　the　tailor　produced　the　Charter　which
  had　been　kept　in　the　safe　of　the　jeweller　ever　since　the　master
  had　gone　to　the　Holy　Land。
  His　Lordship　was　much　annoyed。　But　once　more　he　was
  in　dire　need　of　some　money。　In　Italy　he　had　signed　his　name
  to　certain　documents　which　were　now　in　the　possession　of　Salvestro
  dei　Medici；　the　well…known　banker。　These　documents
  were　‘‘promissory　notes''　and　they　were　due　two　months　from
  date。　Their　total　amount　came　to　three　hundred　and　forty
  pounds；　Flemish　gold。　Under　these　circumstances；　the　noble
  knight　could　not　well　show　the　rage　which　filled　his　heart　and
  his　proud　soul。　Instead；　he　suggested　another　little　loan。　The
  merchants　retired　to　discuss　the　matter。
  After　three　days　they　came　back　and　said　‘‘yes。''　They
  were　only　too　happy　to　be　able　to　help　their　master　in　his
  difficulties；　but　in　return　for　the　345　golden　pounds　would　he　give
  them　another　written　promise　（another　charter）　that　they；
  the　townspeople；　might　establish　a　council　of　their　own　to　be
  elected　by　all　the　merchants　and　free　citizens　of　the　city；　said
  council　to　manage　civic　affairs　without　interference　from　the
  side　of　the　castle？
  His　Lordship　was　confoundedly　angry。　But　again；
  he　needed　the　money。　He　said　yes；　and　signed　the　charter。
  Next　week；　he　repented。　He　called　his　soldiers　and　went　to
  the　house　of　the　jeweller　and　asked　for　the　documents　which
  his　crafty　subjects　had　cajoled　out　of　him　under　the　pressure
  of　circumstances。　He　took　them　away　and　burned　them。
  The　townspeople　stood　by　and　said　nothing。　But　when　next
  his　Lordship　needed　money　to　pay　for　the　dowry　of　his　daughter。
  he　was　unable　to　get　a　single　penny。　After　that　little
  affair　at　the　jeweller's　his　credit　was　not　considered　good。
  He　was　forced　to　eat　humble…pie　and　offer　to　make　certain　reparations。
  Before　his　Lordship　got　the　first　installment　of　the　stipulated　sum；
  the　townspeople　were　once　more　in　possession　of　all　their　old　charters
  and　a　brand　new　one　which　permitted　them　to　build　a　‘‘city…hall''
  and　a　strong　tower　where　all　the　charters　might　be　kept　protected
  against　fire　and　theft；　which　really　meant　protected　against
  future　violence　on　the　part　of　the　Lord　and　his　armed　followers。
  This；　in　a　very　general　way；　is　what　happened　during　the
  centuries　which　followed　the　Crusades。　It　was　a　slow　process；
  this　gradual　shifting　of　power　from　the　castle　to　the　city。　There
  was　some　fighting。　A　few　tailors　and　jewellers　were　killed　and
  a　few　castles　went　up　in　smoke。　But　such　occurrences　were
  not　common。　Almost　imperceptibly　the　towns　grew　richer
  and　the　feudal　lords　grew　poorer。　To　maintain　themselves
  they　were　for　ever　forced　to　exchange　charters　of　civic　liberty
  in　return　for　ready　cash。　The　cities　grew。　They　offered　an
  asylum　to　run…away　serfs　who　gained　their　liberty　after　they
  had　lived　a　number　of　years　behind　the　city　walls。　They　came
  to　be　the　home　of　the　more　energetic　elements　of　the
  surrounding　country　districts。　They　were　proud　of
  their　new　importance　and　expressed　their　power　in　the
  churches　and　public　buildings　which　they　erected
  around　the　old　market　place；　where　centuries　before
  the　barter　of　eggs　and　sheep　and　honey　and　salt
  had　taken　place。　They　wanted　their　children　to
  have　a　better　chance　in　life　than　they　had　enjoyed
  themselves。　They　hired　monks　to　come　to　their　city　and
  be　school　teachers。　When　they　heard　of　a　man　who　could
  paint　pictures　upon　boards　of　wood；　they　offered　him　a　pension
  if　he　would　come　and　cover　the　walls　of　their　chapels　and　their
  town　hall　with　scenes　from　the　Holy　Scriptures。
  Meanwhile　his　Lordship；　in　the　dreary　and　drafty　halls　of
  his　castle；　saw　all　this　up…start　splendour　and　regretted　the
  day　when　first　he　had　signed　away　a　single　one　of　his　sovereign
  rights　and　prerogatives。　But　he　was　helpless。　The　townspeople
  with　their　well…filled　strong…boxes　snapped　their　fingers
  at　him。　They　were　free　men；　fully　prepared　to　hold　what　they
  had　gained　by　the　sweat　of　their　brow　and　after　a　struggle
  which　had　lasted　for　more　than　ten　generations。
  MEDIAEVAL　SELF…GOVERNMENT
  HOW　THE　PEOPLE　OF　THE　CITIES　ASSERTED
  THEIR　RIGHT　TO　BE　HEARD　IN　THE
  ROYAL　COUNCILS　OF　THEIR　COUNTRY
  As　long　as　people　were　‘‘nomads；''　wandering　tribes　of　shepherds；
  all　men　had　been　equal　and　had　been　responsible　for　the
  welfare　and　safety　of　the　entire　community。
  But　after　they　had　settled　down　and　some　had　become　rich
  and　others　had　grown　poor；　the　government　was　apt　to　fall　into
  the　hands　of　those　who　were　not　obliged　to　work　for　their　living
  and　who　could　devote　themselves　to　politics。
  I　have　told　you　how　this　had　happened　in　Egypt　and　in
  Mesopotamia　and　in　Greece　and　in　Rome。　It　occurred　among
  the　Germanic　population　of　western　Europe　as　soon　as　order
  had　been　restored。　The　western　European　world　was　ruled
  in　the　first　place　by　an　emperor　who　was　elected　by　the　seven
  or　eight　most　important　kings　of　the　vast　Roman　Empire　of
  the　German　nation　and　who　enjoyed　a　great　deal　of　imaginary
  and　very　little　actual　power。　It　was　ruled　by　a　number　of
  kings　who　sat　upon　shaky　thrones。　The　every…day　government
  was　in　the　hands　of　thousands　of　feudal　princelets。　Their
  subjects　were　peasants　or　serfs。　There　were　few　cities。　There
  was　hardly　any　middle　class。　But　during　the　thirteenth　century
  （after　an　absence　of　almost　a　thousand　years）　the　middle
  classthe　merchant　classonce　more　appeared　upon　the　his…
  torical　stage　and　its　rise　in　power；　as　we　saw　in　the　last　chapter；
  had　meant　a　decrease　in　the　influence　of　the　castle　folk。
  Thus　far；　the　king；　in　ruling　his　domains；　had　only　paid
  attention　to　the　wishes　of　his　noblemen　and　his　bishops。　But　the
  new　world　of　trade　and　commerce　which　grew　out　of　the
  Crusades　forced　him　to　recognise　the　middle　class　or　suffer
  from　an　ever…increasing　emptiness　of　his　exchequer。　Their
  majesties　（if　they　had　followed　their　hidden　wishes）　would
  have　as　lief　consulted　their　cows　and　their　pigs　as　the　good
  burghers　of　their　cities。　But　they　could　not　help　themselves。
  They　swallowed　the　bitter　pill　because　it　was　gilded；　but　not
  without　a　struggle。
  In　England；　during　the　absence　of　Richard　the　Lion
  Hearted　（who　had　gone　to　the　Holy　Land；　but　who　was　spending
  the　greater　part　of　his　crusading　voyage　in　an　Austrian
  jail）　the　government　of　the　country　had　been　placed　in　the
  hands　of　John；　a　brother　of　Richard；　who　was　his　inferior　in
  the　art　of　war；　but　his　equal　as　a　bad　administrator。　John　had
  begun　his　career　as　a　regent　by　losing　Normandy　and　the
  greater　part　of　the　French　possessions。　Next；　he　had　managed
  to　get　into　a　quarrel　with　Pope　Innocent　III；　the　famous
  enemy　of　the　Hohenstaufens。　The　Pope　had　excommunicated
  John　（as　Gregory　VII　had　excommunicated　the　Emperor
  Henry　IV　two　centuries　before）。　In　the　year　1213　John　had
  been　obliged　to　make　an　ignominious　peace　just　as　Henry　IV
  had　been　obliged　to　do　in　the　year　1077。
  Undismayed　by　his　lack　of　success；　John　continued　to　abuse
  his　royal　power　until　his　disgruntled　vassals　made　a　prisoner
  of　their　anointed　ruler　and　forced　him　to　promise　that　he
  would　be　good　and　would　never　again　interfere　with　the　ancient
  rights　of　his　subjects。　All　this　happened　on　a　little　island　in
  the　Thames；　near　the　village　of　Runnymede；　on　the　15th　of
  June　of　the　year　1215。　The　document　to　which　John　signed
  his　name　was　called　the　Big　Charterthe　Magna　Carta。　It
  contained　very　little　that　was　new。　It　re…stated　in　short　and
  direct　sentences　the　ancient　duties　of　the　king　and　enumerated
  the　privileges　of　his　vassals。　It　paid　little　attention　to　the
  rights　（if　any）　of　the　vast　majority　of　the　people；　the　peasants；
  but　it　offered　certain　securities　to　the　rising　class　of　the
  merchants。　It　was　a　charter　of　great　importance　because　it　defined
  the　powers　of　the　king　with　mor