of　life。　That　will　change　in　due　course　of　time　and　we
  shall　then　attack　the　problems　which　are　not　related　to　health
  and　to　wages　and　plumbing　and　machinery　in　general。
  But　please　do　not　be　too　sentimental　about　the　‘‘good　old
  days。''　Many　people　who　only　see　the　beautiful　churches　and
  the　great　works　of　art　which　the　Middle　Ages　have　left　behind
  grow　quite　eloquent　when　they　compare　our　own　ugly　civilisation
  with　its　hurry　and　its　noise　and　the　evil　smells　of　backfiring
  motor　trucks　with　the　cities　of　a　thousand　years　ago。
  But　these　mediaeval　churches　were　invariably　surrounded　by
  miserable　hovels　compared　to　which　a　modern　tenement　house
  stands　forth　as　a　luxurious　palace。　It　is　true　that　the　noble
  Lancelot　and　the　equally　noble　Parsifal；　the　pure　young　hero
  who　went　in　search　of　the　Holy　Grail；　were　not　bothered　by
  the　odor　of　gasoline。　But　there　were　other　smells　of　the　barnyard
  varietyodors　of　decaying　refuse　which　had　been　thrown
  into　the　streetof　pig…sties　surrounding　the　Bishop's　palace
  of　unwashed　people　who　had　inherited　their　coats　and　hats
  from　their　grandfathers　and　who　had　never　learned　the　blessing
  of　soap。　I　do　not　want　to　paint　too　unpleasant　a　picture。
  But　when　you　read　in　the　ancient　chronicles　that　the　King　of
  France；　looking　out　of　the　windows　of　his　palace；　fainted　at
  the　stench　caused　by　the　pigs　rooting　in　the　streets　of　Paris；
  when　an　ancient　manuscript　recounts　a　few　details　of　an　epidemic
  of　the　plague　or　of　small…pox；　then　you　begin　to　under…
  stand　that　‘‘progress''　is　something　more　than　a　catchword　used
  by　modern　advertising　men。
  No；　the　progress　of　the　last　six　hundred　years　would　not
  have　been　possible　without　the　existence　of　cities。　I　shall；
  therefore；　have　to　make　this　chapter　a　little　longer　than　many
  of　the　others。　It　is　too　important　to　be　reduced　to　three　or
  four　pages；　devoted　to　mere　political　events。
  The　ancient　world　of　Egypt　and　Babylonia　and　Assyria
  had　been　a　world　of　cities。　Greece　had　been　a　country　of　City…
  States。　The　history　of　Phoenicia　was　the　history　of　two　cities
  called　Sidon　and　Tyre。　The　Roman　Empire　was　the　‘‘hinterland''
  of　a　single　town。　Writing；　art；　science；　astronomy；　architecture；
  literature；　the　theatrethe　list　is　endlesshave　all
  been　products　of　the　city。
  For　almost　four　thousand　years　the　wooden　bee…hive　which
  we　call　a　town　had　been　the　workshop　of　the　world。　Then　came
  the　great　migrations。　The　Roman　Empire　was　destroyed。
  The　cities　were　burned　down　and　Europe　once　more　became　a
  land　of　pastures　and　little　agricultural　villages。　During　the
  Dark　Ages　the　fields　of　civilisation　had　lain　fallow。
  The　Crusades　had　prepared　the　soil　for　a　new　crop。　It
  was　time　for　the　harvest；　but　the　fruit　was　plucked　by　the
  burghers　of　the　free　cities。
  I　have　told　you　the　story　of　the　castles　and　the　monasteries；
  with　their　heavy　stone　enclosuresthe　homes　of　the　knights
  and　the　monks；　who　guarded　men's　bodies　and　their　souls。
  You　have　seen　how　a　few　artisans　（butchers　and　bakers　and　an
  occasional　candle…stick　maker）　came　to　live　near　the　castle
  to　tend　to　the　wants　of　their　masters　and　to　find　protection
  in　case　of　danger。　Sometimes　the　feudal　lord　allowed　these
  people　to　surround　their　houses　with　a　stockade。　But　they
  were　dependent　for　their　living　upon　the　good…will　of　the
  mighty　Seigneur　of　the　castle。　When　he　went　about　they　knelt
  before　him　and　kissed　his　hand。
  Then　came　the　Crusades　and　many　things　changed。　The
  migrations　had　driven　people　from　the　north…east　to　the　west。
  The　Crusades　made　millions　of　people　travel　from　the　west　to
  the　highly　civilised　regions　of　the　south…east。　They　discovered
  that　the　world　was　not　bounded　by　the　four　walls　of　their　little
  settlement。　They　came　to　appreciate　better　clothes；　more
  comfortable　houses；　new　dishes；　products　of　the　mysterious　Orient。
  After　their　return　to　their　old　homes；　they　insisted　that　they
  be　supplied　with　those　articles。　The　peddler　with　his　pack
  upon　his　backthe　only　merchant　of　the　Dark　Agesadded
  these　goods　to　his　old　merchandise；　bought　a　cart；　hired　a　few
  ex…crusaders　to　protect　him　against　the　crime　wave　which
  followed　this　great　international　war；　and　went　forth　to　do
  business　upon　a　more　modern　and　larger　scale。　His　career　was
  not　an　easy　one。　Every　time　he　entered　the　domains　of　another
  Lord　he　had　to　pay　tolls　and　taxes。　But　the　business
  was　profitable　all　the　same　and　the　peddler　continued　to　make
  his　rounds。
  Soon　certain　energetic　merchants　discovered　that　the　goods
  which　they　had　always　imported　from　afar　could　be　made　at
  home。　They　turned　part　of　their　homes　into　a　workgshop。｛sic｝
  They　ceased　to　be　merchants　and　became　manufacturers。　They
  sold　their　products　not　only　to　the　lord　of　the　castle　and　to　the
  abbot　in　his　monastery；　but　they　exported　them　to　nearby　towns。
  The　lord　and　the　abbot　paid　them　with　products　of　their　farms；
  eggs　and　wines；　and　with　honey；　which　in　those　early　days　was
  used　as　sugar。　But　the　citizens　of　distant　towns　were　obliged
  to　pay　in　cash　and　the　manufacturer　and　the　merchant　began　to
  own　little　pieces　of　gold；　which　entirely　changed　their　position
  in　the　society　of　the　early　Middle　Ages。
  It　is　difficult　for　you　to　imagine　a　world　without　money。
  In　a　modern　city　one　cannot　possible　live　without　money。　All
  day　long　you　carry　a　pocket　full　of　small　discs　of　metal　to
  ‘‘pay　your　way。''　You　need　a　nickel　for　the　street…car；　a　dollar
  for　a　dinner；　three　cents　for　an　evening　paper。　But　many
  people　of　the　early　Middle　Ages　never　saw　a　piece　of　coined
  money　from　the　time　they　were　born　to　the　day　of　their　death。
  The　gold　and　silver　of　Greece　and　Rome　lay　buried　beneath
  the　ruins　of　their　cities。　The　world　of　the　migrations；　which
  had　succeeded　the　Empire；　was　an　agricultural　world。　Every
  farmer　raised　enough　grain　and　enough　sheep　and　enough
  cows　for　his　own　use。
  The　mediaeval　knight　was　a　country　squire　and　was　rarely
  forced　to　pay　for　materials　in　money。　His　estates　produced
  everything　that　he　and　his　family　ate　and　drank　and　wore　on
  their　backs。　The　bricks　for　his　house　were　made　along　the
  banks　of　the　nearest　river。　Wood　for　the　rafters　of　the　hall
  was　cut　from　the　baronial　forest。　The　few　articles　that　had　to
  come　from　abroad　were　paid　for　in　goodsin　honeyin　eggs
  in　fagots。
  But　the　Crusades　upset　the　routine　of　the　old　agricultural
  life　in　a　very　drastic　fashion。　Suppose　that　the　Duke　of　Hildesheim
  was　going　to　the　Holy　Land。　He　must　travel　thousands
  of　miles　and　he　must　pay　his　passage　and　his　hotel…bills。
  At　home　he　could　pay　with　products　of　his　farm。　But　he
  could　not　well　take　a　hundred　dozen　eggs　and　a　cart…load　of
  hams　with　him　to　satisfy　the　greed　of　the　shipping　agent　of
  Venice　or　the　inn…keeper　of　the　Brenner　Pass。　These　gentlemen
  insisted　upon　cash。　His　Lordship　therefore　was　obliged
  to　take　a　small　quantity　of　gold　with　him　upon　his　voyage。
  Where　could　he　find　this　gold？　He　could　borrow　it　from　the
  Lombards；　the　descendants　of　the　old　Longobards；　who　had
  turned　professional　money…lenders；　who　seated　behind　their
  exchange…table　（commonly　known　as　‘‘banco''　or　bank）　were
  glad　to　let　his　Grace　have　a　few　hundred　gold　pieces　in　exchange
  for　a　mortgage　upon　his　estates；　that　they　might　be　repaid
  in　case　His　Lordship　should　die　at　the　hands　of　the　Turks。
  That　was　dangerous　business　for　the　borrower。　In　the　end；
  the　Lombards　invariably　owned　the　estates　and　the　Knight
  became　a　bankrupt；　who　hired　himself　out　as　a　fighting　man　to
  a　more　powerful　and　more　careful　neighbour。
  His　Grace　could　also　go　to　that　part　of　the　town　where　the
  Jews　were　forced　to　live。　There　he　could　borrow　money　at　a
  rate　of　fifty　or　sixty　percent。　interest。　That；　too；　was　bad
  business。　But　was　there　a　way　out？　Some　of　the　people　of　the
  little　city　which　surrounded　the　castle　were　said　to　have　money。
  They　had　known　the　young　lord　all　his　life。　His　father　and
  their　fathers　had　been　good　friends。　They　would　not　be
  unreasonable　in　their　demands。　Very　well。　His　Lordship's
  clerk；　a　monk　who　could　write　and　keep　accounts；　sent　a　note
  to　the　best　known　merchants　and　asked　for　a　small　loan。　The
  townspeople　met　in　the　work…room　of　the　jeweller　who　made
  chalices　for　the　nearby　churches　and　discussed　this　demand。
  They　could　not　well　refuse。　It　would　serve　no　purpose　to
  ask　for　‘‘interest。''　In　the　first　place；　it　was　against　the
  religious　principles　of　most　people　to　take　interest　and　in　the
  second　place；　it　would　never　be　paid　except　in　agricultural
  products　and　of　these　the　people　had　enough　and　to　spare。
  ‘‘But；''　suggested　the　tailor　who　spent　his　days　quietly　sitting
  upon　his　table　and　who　was　somewhat　of　a　philosopher；
  ‘‘suppose　that　we　ask　some　favour　in　return　for　our　money。
  We　are　all　fond　of　fishing。　But　his　Lordship　won't　let　us
  fish　in　his　brook。　Suppose　that　we　let　him　have　a　hundred
  ducats　and　that　he　give　us　in　ret