the　exclusive　power　of　electing　the　future　Popes。
  In　the　year　1073　the　College　of　Cardinals　elected　a　priest
  by　the　name　of　Hildebrand；　the　son　of　very　simple　parents　in
  Tuscany；　as　Pope；　and　he　took　the　name　of　Gregory　VII。
  His　energy　was　unbounded。　His　belief　in　the　supreme　powers
  of　his　Holy　Office　was　built　upon　a　granite　rock　of　conviction
  and　courage。　In　the　mind　of　Gregory；　the　Pope　was　not　only
  the　absolute　head　of　the　Christian　church；　but　also　the　highest
  Court　of　Appeal　in　all　worldly　matters。　The　Pope　who　had
  elevated　simple　German　princes　to　the　dignity　of　Emperor
  could　depose　them　at　will。　He　could　veto　any　law　passed　by
  duke　or　king　or　emperor；　but　whosoever　should　question　a
  papal　decree；　let　him　beware；　for　the　punishment　would　be
  swift　and　merciless。
  Gregory　sent　ambassadors　to　all　the　European　courts　to
  inform　the　potentates　of　Europe　of　his　new　laws　and　asked
  them　to　take　due　notice　of　their　contents。　William　the　Conqueror
  promised　to　be　good；　but　Henry　IV；　who　since　the　age
  of　six　had　been　fighting　with　his　subjects；　had　no　intention　of
  submitting　to　the　Papal　will。　He　called　together　a　college　of
  German　bishops；　accused　Gregory　of　every　crime　under　the
  sun　and　then　had　him　deposed　by　the　council　of　Worms。
  The　Pope　answered　with　excommunication　and　a　demand
  that　the　German　princes　rid　themselves　of　their　unworthy　ruler。
  The　German　princes；　only　too　happy　to　be　rid　of　Henry；　asked
  the　Pope　to　come　to　Augsburg　and　help　them　elect　a　new　Emperor。
  Gregory　left　Rome　and　travelled　northward。　Henry；
  who　was　no　fool；　appreciated　the　danger　of　his　position。　At
  all　costs　he　must　make　peace　with　the　Pope；　and　he　must　do
  it　at　once。　In　the　midst　of　winter　he　crossed　the　Alps　and
  hastened　to　Canossa　where　the　Pope　had　stopped　for　a　short
  rest。　Three　long　days；　from　the　25th　to　the　28th　of　January
  of　the　year　1077；　Henry；　dressed　as　a　penitent　pilgrim
  （but　with　a　warm　sweater　underneath　his　monkish　garb）；
  waited　outside　the　gates　of　the　castle　of　Canossa。
  Then　he　was　allowed　to　enter　and　was　pardoned　for
  his　sins。　But　the　repentance　did　not　last　long。
  As　soon　as　Henry　had　returned　to　Germany；　he　behaved
  exactly　as　before。　Again　he　was　excommunicated。　For　the
  second　time　a　council　of　German　bishops　deposed　Gregory；
  but　this　time；　when　Henry　crossed　the　Alps　he　was　at
  the　head　of　a　large　army；　besieged　Rome　and　forced　Gregory
  to　retire　to　Salerno；　where　he　died　in　exile。　This　first　violent
  outbreak　decided　nothing。　As　soon　as　Henry　was　back　in
  Germany；　the　struggle　between　Pope　and　Emperor　was　continued。
  The　Hohenstaufen　family　which　got　hold　of　the　Imperial
  German　Throne　shortly　afterwards；　were　even　more　independent
  than　their　predecessors。　Gregory　had　claimed　that　the
  Popes　were　superior　to　all　kings　because　they　（the　Popes）　at
  the　Day　of　Judgement　would　be　responsible　for　the　behaviour
  of　all　the　sheep　of　their　flock；　and　in　the　eyes　of　God；　a　king
  was　one　of　that　faithful　herd。
  Frederick　of　Hohenstaufen；　commonly　known　as　Barbarossa
  or　Red　Beard；　set　up　the　counter…claim　that　the　Empire
  had　been　bestowed　upon　his　predecessor　‘‘by　God　himself''
  and　as　the　Empire　included　Italy　and　Rome；　he　began　a　campaign
  which　was　to　add　these　‘‘lost　provinces''　to　the　northern
  country。　Barbarossa　was　accidentally　drowned　in　Asia　Minor
  during　the　second　Crusade；　but　his　son　Frederick　II；　a　brilliant
  young　man　who　in　his　youth　had　been　exposed　to　the　civilisation
  of　the　Mohammedans　of　Sicily；　continued　the　war。　The
  Popes　accused　him　of　heresy。　It　is　true　that　Frederick　seems
  to　have　felt　a　deep　and　serious　contempt　for　the　rough　Christian
  world　of　the　North；　for　the　boorish　German　Knights　and
  the　intriguing　Italian　priests。　But　he　held　his　tongue；　went
  on　a　Crusade　and　took　Jerusalem　from　the　infidel　and　was
  duly　crowned　as　King　of　the　Holy　City。　Even　this　act　did　not
  placate　the　Popes。　They　deposed　Frederick　and　gave　his
  Italian　possessions　to　Charles　of　Anjou；　the　brother　of　that
  King　Louis　of　France　who　became　famous　as　Saint　Louis。
  This　led　to　more　warfare。　Conrad　V；　the　son　of　Conrad　IV；
  and　the　last　of　the　Hohenstaufens；　tried　to　regain　the　kingdom；
  and　was　defeated　and　decapitated　at　Naples。　But　twenty　years
  later；　the　French　who　had　made　themselves　thoroughly　unpopular
  in　Sicily　were　all　murdered　during　the　so…called　Sicilian
  Vespers；　and　so　it　went。
  The　quarrel　between　the　Popes　and　the　Emperors　was
  never　settled；　but　after　a　while　the　two　enemies　learned　to
  leave　each　other　alone。
  In　the　year　1278；　Rudolph　of　Hapsburg　was　elected　Emperor。
  He　did　not　take　the　trouble　to　go　to　Rome　to　be
  crowned。　The　Popes　did　not　object　and　in　turn　they　kept
  away　from　Germany。　This　meant　peace　but　two　entire　centuries
  which　might　have　been　used　for　the　purpose　of　internal
  organisation　had　been　wasted　in　useless　warfare。
  It　is　an　ill　wind　however　that　bloweth　no　good　to　some　one。
  The　little　cities　of　Italy；　by　a　process　of　careful　balancing；
  had　managed　to　increase　their　power　and　their　independence
  at　the　expense　of　both　Emperors　and　Popes。　When　the　rush
  for　the　Holy　Land　began；　they　were　able　to　handle　the　transportation
  problem　of　the　thousands　of　eager　pilgrims　who　were
  clamoring　for　passage；　and　at　the　end　of　the　Crusades　they
  had　built　themselves　such　strong　defences　of　brick　and　of　gold
  that　they　could　defy　Pope　and　Emperor　with　equal　indifference。
  Church　and　State　fought　each　other　and　a　third　partythe
  mediaeval　cityran　away　with　the　spoils。
  THE　CRUSADES
  BUT　ALL　THESE　DIFFERENT　QUARRELS
  WERE　FORGOTTEN　WHEN　THE　TURKS
  TOOK　THE　HOLY　LAND；　DESECRATED　THE
  HOLY　PLACES　AND　INTERFERED　SERIOUSLY
  WITH　THE　TRADE　FROM　EAST　TO
  WEST。　EUROPE　WENT　CRUSADING
  DURING　three　centuries　there　had　been　peace　between　Christians
  and　Moslems　except　in　Spain　and　in　the　eastern　Roman
  Empire；　the　two　states　defending　the　gateways　of　Europe。
  The　Mohammedans　having　conquered　Syria　in　the　seventh
  century　were　in　possession　of　the　Holy　Land。　But　they　regarded
  Jesus　as　a　great　prophet　（though　not　quite　as　great
  as　Mohammed）；　and　they　did　not　interfere　with　the　pilgrims
  who　wished　to　pray　in　the　church　which　Saint　Helena；　the
  mother　of　the　Emperor　Constantine；　had　built　on　the　spot　of
  the　Holy　Grave。　But　early　in　the　eleventh　century；　a　Tartar
  tribe　from　the　wilds　of　Asia；　called　the　Seljuks　or　Turks；
  became　masters　of　the　Mohammedan　state　in　western　Asia　and
  then　the　period　of　tolerance　came　to　an　end。　The　Turks　took
  all　of　Asia　Minor　away　from　the　eastern　Roman　Emperors
  and　they　made　an　end　to　the　trade　between　east　and　west。
  Alexis；　the　Emperor；　who　rarely　saw　anything　of　his　Christian
  neighbours　of　the　west；　appealed　for　help　and　pointed　to
  the　danger　which　threatened　Europe　should　the　Turks　take
  Constantinople。
  The　Italian　cities　which　had　established　colonies　along　the
  coast　of　Asia　Minor　and　Palestine；　in　fear　for　their　possessions；
  reported　terrible　stories　of　Turkish　atrocities　and　Christian
  suffering。　All　Europe　got　excited。
  Pope　Urban　II；　a　Frenchman　from　Reims；　who　had　been
  educated　at　the　same　famous　cloister　of　Cluny　which　had
  trained　Gregory　VII；　thought　that　the　time　had　come　for
  action。　The　general　state　of　Europe　was　far　from　satisfactory。
  The　primitive　agricultural　methods　of　that　day　（unchanged
  since　Roman　times）　caused　a　constant　scarcity　of　food。　There
  was　unemployment　and　hunger　and　these　are　apt　to　lead　to
  discontent　and　riots。　Western　Asia　in　older　days　had　fed　millions。
  It　was　an　excellent　field　for　the　purpose　of　immigration。
  Therefore　at　the　council　of　Clermont　in　France　in　the　year
  1095　the　Pope　arose；　described　the　terrible　horrors　which　the
  infidels　had　inflicted　upon　the　Holy　Land；　gave　a　glowing
  description　of　this　country　which　ever　since　the　days　of　Moses
  had　been　overflowing　with　milk　and　honey；　and　exhorted　the
  knights　of　France　and　the　people　of　Europe　in　general　to
  leave　wife　and　child　and　deliver　Palestine　from　the　Turks。
  A　wave　of　religious　hysteria　swept　across　the　continent。
  All　reason　stopped。　Men　would　drop　their　hammer　and　saw；
  walk　out　of　their　shop　and　take　the　nearest　road　to　the　east
  to　go　and　kill　Turks。　Children　would　leave　their　homes　to　‘‘go
  to　Palestine''　and　bring　the　terrible　Turks　to　their　knees　by
  the　mere　appeal　of　their　youthful　zeal　and　Christian　piety。
  Fully　ninety　percent　of　those　enthusiasts　never　got　within
  sight　of　the　Holy　Land。　They　had　no　money。　They　were
  forced　to　beg　or　steal　to　keep　alive。　They　became　a　danger
  to　the　safety　of　the　highroads　and　they　were　killed　by　the
  angry　country　people。
  The　first　Crusade；　a　wild　mob　of　honest　Christians；　defaulting
  bankrupts；　penniless　noblemen　and　fugitives　from　justice；
  following　the　lead　of　half…crazy　Peter　the　Hermit　and　Walter…
  without…a…Cent；　began　their　campaign　against　the　Infidels　by
  murdering　all　the　Jews　whom　they