and　having　vowed　all　sorts　of　oaths　about　mercy　and
  charity　in　the　morning；　they　would　murder　all　their　prisoners
  before　evening。　But　progress　is　ever　the　result　of　slow　and
  ceaseless　labour；　and　finally　the　most　unscrupulous　of　knights
  was　forced　to　obey　the　rules　of　his　‘‘class''　or　suffer　the　consequences。
  These　rules　were　different　in　the　various　parts　of　Europe；
  but　they　all　made　much　of　‘‘service''　and　‘‘loyalty　to　duty。''　The
  Middle　Ages　regarded　service　as　something　very　noble　and
  beautiful。　It　was　no　disgrace　to　be　a　servant；　provided　you
  were　a　good　servant　and　did　not　slacken　on　the　job。　As　for
  loyalty；　at　a　time　when　life　depended　upon　the　faithful　per…
  formance　of　many　unpleasant　duties；　it　was　the　chief　virtue
  of　the　fighting　man。
  A　young　knight　therefore　was　asked　to　swear　that　he　would
  be　faithful　as　a　servant　to　God　and　as　a　servant　to　his　King。
  Furthermore；　he　promised　to　be　generous　to　those　whose　need
  was　greater　than　his　own。　He　pledged　his　word　that　he　would
  be　humble　in　his　personal　behaviour　and　would　never　boast　of
  his　own　accomplishments　and　that　he　would　be　a　friend　of　all
  those　who　suffered；　（with　the　exception　of　the　Mohammedans；
  whom　he　was　expected　to　kill　on　sight）。
  Around　these　vows；　which　were　merely　the　Ten　Commandments
  expressed　in　terms　which　the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages
  could　understand；　there　developed　a　complicated　system　of
  manners　and　outward　behaviour。　The　knights　tried　to　model
  their　own　lives　after　the　example　of　those　heroes　of　Arthur's
  Round　Table　and　Charlemagne's　court　of　whom　the　Troubadours
  had　told　them　and　of　whom　you　may　read　in　many　delightful
  books　which　are　enumerated　at　the　end　of　this　volume。
  They　hoped　that　they　might　prove　as　brave　as　Lancelot　and
  as　faithful　as　Roland。　They　carried　themselves　with　dignity
  and　they　spoke　careful　and　gracious　words　that　they　might　be
  known　as　True　Knights；　however　humble　the　cut　of　their　coat
  or　the　size　of　their　purse。
  In　this　way　the　order　of　Knighthood　became　a　school　of　those
  good　manners　which　are　the　oil　of　the　social　machinery。　Chivalry
  came　to　mean　courtesy　and　the　feudal　castle　showed　the
  rest　of　the　world　what　clothes　to　wear；　how　to　eat；　how　to　ask
  a　lady　for　a　dance　and　the　thousand　and　one　little　things　of
  every…day　behaviour　which　help　to　make　life　interesting　and
  agreeable。
  Like　all　human　institutions；　Knighthood　was　doomed　to
  perish　as　soon　as　it　had　outlived　its　usefulness。
  The　crusades；　about　which　one　of　the　next　chapters　tells；
  were　followed　by　a　great　revival　of　trade。　Cities　grew　overnight。
  The　townspeople　became　rich；　hired　good　school　teachers
  and　soon　were　the　equals　of　the　knights。　The　invention
  of　gun…powder　deprived　the　heavily　armed　‘‘Chevalier''　of　his
  former　advantage　and　the　use　of　mercenaries　made　it　impossible
  to　conduct　a　battle　with　the　delicate　niceties　of　a　chess
  tournament。　The　knight　became　superfluous。　Soon　he　became
  a　ridiculous　figure；　with　his　devotion　to　ideals　that　had　no
  longer　any　practical　value。　It　was　said　that　the　noble　Don
  Quixote　de　la　Mancha　had　been　the　last　of　the　true　knights。
  After　his　death；　his　trusted　sword　and　his　armour　were　sold
  to　pay　his　debts。
  But　somehow　or　other　that　sword　seems　to　have　fallen　into
  the　hands　of　a　number　of　men。　Washington　carried　it　during
  the　hopeless　days　of　Valley　Forge。　It　was　the　only　defence
  of　Gordon；　when　he　had　refused　to　desert　the　people　who　had
  been　entrusted　to　his　care；　and　stayed　to　meet　his　death　in　the
  besieged　fortress　of　Khartoum。
  And　I　am　not　quite　sure　but　that　it　proved　of　invaluable
  strength　in　winning　the　Great　War。
  POPE　vs。　EMPEROR
  THE　STRANGE　DOUBLE　LOYALTY　OF　THE
  PEOPLE　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES　AND　HOW
  IT　LED　TO　ENDLESS　QUARRELS　BETWEEN
  THE　POPES　AND　THE　HOLY　ROMAN　EMPERORS
  IT　is　very　difficult　to　understand　the　people　of　by…gone
  ages。　Your　own　grandfather；　whom　you　see　every　day；　is　a
  mysterious　being　who　lives　in　a　different　world　of　ideas　and
  clothes　and　manners。　I　am　now　telling　you　the　story　of　some
  of　your　grandfathers　who　are　twenty…five　generations　removed；
  and　I　do　not　expect　you　to　catch　the　meaning　of　what　I　write
  without　re…reading　this　chapter　a　number　of　times。
  The　average　man　of　the　Middle　Ages　lived　a　very　simple
  and　uneventful　life。　Even　if　he　was　a　free　citizen；　able　to
  come　and　go　at　will；　he　rarely　left　his　own　neighbourhood。
  There　were　no　printed　books　and　only　a　few　manuscripts。
  Here　and　there；　a　small　band　of　industrious　monks　taught
  reading　and　writing　and　some　arithmetic。　But　science　and　history
  and　geography　lay　buried　beneath　the　ruins　of　Greece　and
  Rome。
  Whatever　people　knew　about　the　past　they　had　learned　by
  listening　to　stories　and　legends。　Such　information；　which　goes
  from　father　to　son；　is　often　slightly　incorrect　in　details；　but
  it　will　preserve　the　main　facts　of　history　with　astonishing
  accuracy。　After　more　than　two　thousand　years；　the　mothers　of
  India　still　frighten　their　naughty　children　by　telling　them　that
  ‘‘Iskander　will　get　them；''　and　Iskander　is　none　other　than
  Alexander　the　Great；　who　visited　India　in　the　year　330　before
  the　birth　of　Christ；　but　whose　story　has　lived　through　all　these
  ages。
  The　people　of　the　early　Middle　Ages　never　saw　a　textbook
  of　Roman　history。　They　were　ignorant　of　many　things
  which　every　school…boy　to…day　knows　before　he　has　entered
  the　third　grade。　But　the　Roman　Empire；　which　is　merely　a
  name　to　you；　was　to　them　something　very　much　alive。　They
  felt　it。　They　willingly　recognised　the　Pope　as　their　spiritual
  leader　because　he　lived　in　Rome　and　represented　the　idea　of
  the　Roman　super…power。　And　they　were　profoundly　grateful
  when　Charlemagne；　and　afterwards　Otto　the　Great；　revived
  the　idea　of　a　world…empire　and　created　the　Holy　Roman
  Empire；　that　the　world　might　again　be　as　it　always　had　been。
  But　the　fact　that　there　were　two　different　heirs　to　the
  Roman　tradition　placed　the　faithful　burghers　of　the　Middle
  Ages　in　a　difficult　position。　The　theory　behind　the　mediaeval
  political　system　was　both　sound　and　simple。　While　the　worldly
  master　（the　emperor）　looked　after　the　physical　well…being　of
  his　subjects；　the　spiritual　master　（the　Pope）　guarded　their
  souls。
  In　practice；　however；　the　system　worked　very　badly。　The
  Emperor　invariably　tried　to　interfere　with　the　affairs　of　the
  church　and　the　Pope　retaliated　and　told　the　Emperor　how
  he　should　rule　his　domains。　Then　they　told　each　other　to　mind
  their　own　business　in　very　unceremonious　language　and　the
  inevitable　end　was　war。
  Under　those　circumstances；　what　were　the　people　to　do；
  A　good　Christian　obeyed　both　the　Pope　and　his　King。　But
  the　Pope　and　the　Emperor　were　enemies。　Which　side　should
  a　dutiful　subject　and　an　equally　dutiful　Christian　take？
  It　was　never　easy　to　give　the　correct　answer。　When　the
  Emperor　happened　to　be　a　man　of　energy　and　was　sufficiently
  well　provided　with　money　to　organise　an　army；　he　was　very
  apt　to　cross　the　Alps　and　march　on　Rome；　besiege　the　Pope
  in　his　own　palace　if　need　be；　and　force　His　Holiness　to　obey
  the　imperial　instructions　or　suffer　the　consequences。
  But　more　frequently　the　Pope　was　the　stronger。　Then　the
  Emperor　or　the　King　together　with　all　his　subjects　was
  excommunicated。　This　meant　that　all　churches　were　closed；　that　no
  one　could　be　baptised；　that　no　dying　man　could　be　given　absolution
  in　short；　that　half　of　the　functions　of　mediaeval　government
  came　to　an　end。
  More　than　that；　the　people　were　absolved　from　their　oath　of
  loyalty　to　their　sovereign　and　were　urged　to　rebel　against　their
  master。　But　if　they　followed　this　advice　of　the　distant　Pope
  and　were　caught；　they　were　hanged　by　their　near…by　Lege
  Lord　and　that　too　was　very　unpleasant。
  Indeed；　the　poor　fellows　were　in　a　difficult　position　and
  none　fared　worse　than　those　who　lived　during　the　latter　half　of
  the　eleventh　century；　when　the　Emperor　Henry　IV　of　Germany
  and　Pope　Gregory　VII　fought　a　two…round　battle　which
  decided　nothing　and　upset　the　peace　of　Europe　for　almost　fifty
  years。
  In　the　middle　of　the　eleventh　century　there　had　been　a
  strong　movement　for　reform　in　the　church。　The　election　of　the
  Popes；　thus　far；　had　been　a　most　irregular　affair。　It　was　to　the
  advantage　of　the　Holy　Roman　Emperors　to　have　a　well…disposed
  priest　elected　to　the　Holy　See。　They　frequently　came
  to　Rome　at　the　time　of　election　and　used　their　influence　for
  the　benefit　of　one　of　their　friends。
  In　the　year　1059　this　had　been　changed。　By　a　decree　of
  Pope　Nicholas　II　the　principal　priests　and　deacons　of　the
  churches　in　and　around　Rome　were　organised　into　the　so…
  called　College　of　Cardinals；　and　this　gathering　of　prominent
  churchmen　（the　word　‘‘Cardinal''　meant　principal）　was　given
  the　exclusive　power　of　electing　the　future　Popes。
  In　the　year　1073　the　College　of　Cardinals　elected　a　priest
  by　the　name　o