They　soon　learned　to　speak　the　language　of　their　subjects　and
  gave　up　the　uncivilised　ways　of　the　early　Vikings　（or　Sea…
  Kings　who　had　been　very　picturesque　but　also　very　unwashed
  and　terribly　cruel。
  Early　in　the　tenth　century　a　Viking　by　the　name　of　Rollo
  had　repeatedly　attacked　the　coast　of　France。　The　king　of
  France；　too　weak　to　resist　these　northern　robbers；　tried　to
  bribe　them　into　‘‘being　good。''　He　offered　them　the　province
  of　Normandy；　if　they　would　promise　to　stop　bothering　the　rest
  of　his　domains。　Rollo　accepted　this　bargain　and　became　‘‘Duke
  of　Normandy。''
  But　the　passion　of　conquest　was　strong　in　the　blood　of　his
  children。　Across　the　channel；　only　a　few　hours　away　from　the
  European　mainland；　they　could　see　the　white　cliffs　and　the
  green　fields　of　England。　Poor　England　had　passed　through
  difficult　days。　For　two　hundred　years　it　had　been　a　Roman
  colony。　After　the　Romans　left；　it　had　been　conquered　by　the
  Angles　and　the　Saxons；　two　German　tribes　from　Schleswig。
  Next　the　Danes　had　taken　the　greater　part　of　the　country
  and　had　established　the　kingdom　of　Cnut。　The　Danes　had
  been　driven　away　and　now　（it　was　early　in　the　eleventh　century）
  another　Saxon　king；　Edward　the　Confessor；　was　on　the
  throne。　But　Edward　was　not　expected　to　live　long　and　he
  had　no　children。　The　circumstances　favoured　the　ambitious
  dukes　of　Normandy。
  In　1066　Edward　died。　Immediately　William　of　Normandy
  crossed　the　channel；　defeated　and　killed　Harold　of
  Wessex　（who　had　taken　the　crown）　at　the　battle　of　Hastings；
  and　proclaimed　himself　king　of　England。
  In　another　chapter　I　have　told　you　how　in　the　year　800　a
  German　chieftain　had　become　a　Roman　Emperor。　Now　in
  the　year　1066　the　grandson　of　a　Norse　pirate　was　recognised
  as　King　of　England。
  Why　should　we　ever　read　fairy　stories；　when　the　truth
  of　history　is　so　much　more　interesting　and　entertaining？
  FEUDALISM
  HOW　CENTRAL　EUROPE；　ATTACKED　FROM
  THREE　SIDES；　BECAME　AN　ARMED　CAMP
  AND　WHY　EUROPE　WOULD　HAVE　PERISHED
  WITHOUT　THOSE　PROFESSIONAL
  SOLDIERS　AND　ADMINISTRATORS　WHO
  WERE　PART　OF　THE　FEUDAL　SYSTEM
  THE　following；　then；　is　the　state　of　Europe　in　the　year　one
  thousand；　when　most　people　were　so　unhappy　that　they　welcomed
  the　prophecy　foretelling　the　approaching　end　of　the
  world　and　rushed　to　the　monasteries；　that　the　Day　of　Judgement
  might　find　them　engaged　upon　devout　duties。
  At　an　unknown　date；　the　Germanic　tribes　had　left　their　old
  home　in　Asia　and　had　moved　westward　into　Europe。　By
  sheer　pressure　of　numbers　they　had　forced　their　way　into　the
  Roman　Empire。　They　had　destroyed　the　great　western　empire；
  but　the　eastern　part；　being　off　the　main　route　of　the
  great　migrations；　had　managed　to　survive　and　feebly　continued
  the　traditions　of　Rome's　ancient　glory。
  During　the　days　of　disorder　which　had　followed；　（the　true
  ‘‘dark　ages''　of　history；　the　sixth　and　seventh　centuries　of　our
  era；）　the　German　tribes　had　been　persuaded　to　accept　the
  Christian　religion　and　had　recognised　the　Bishop　of　Rome
  as　the　Pope　or　spiritual　head　of　the　world。　In　the　ninth　century；
  the　organising　genius　of　Charlemagne　had　revived　the
  Roman　Empire　and　had　united　the　greater　part　of　western
  Europe　into　a　single　state。　During　the　tenth　century　this
  empire　had　gone　to　pieces。　The　western　part　had　become　a
  separate　kingdom；　France。　The　eastern　half　was　known　as　the
  Holy　Roman　Empire　of　the　German　nation；　and　the　rulers　of
  this　federation　of　states　then　pretended　that　they　were　the
  direct　heirs　of　Caesar　and　Augustus。
  Unfortunately　the　power　of　the　kings　of　France　did　not
  stretch　beyond　the　moat　of　their　royal　residence；　while　the
  Holy　Roman　Emperor　was　openly　defied　by　his　powerful
  subjects　whenever　it　suited　their　fancy　or　their　profit。
  To　increase　the　misery　of　the　masses　of　the　people；　the
  triangle　of　western　Europe　（look　at　page　128；　please）　was　for　ever
  exposed　to　attacks　from　three　sides。　On　the　south　lived　the
  ever　dangerous　Mohammedans。　The　western　coast　was　ravaged
  by　the　Northmen。　The　eastern　frontier　（defenceless　except
  for　the　short　stretch　of　the　Carpathian　mountains）　was　at
  the　mercy　of　hordes　of　Huns；　Hungarians；　Slavs　and　Tartars。
  The　peace　of　Rome　was　a　thing　of　the　remote　past；　a　dream
  of　the　‘‘Good　Old　Days''　that　were　gone　for　ever。　It　was　a
  question　of　‘‘fight　or　die；''　and　quite　naturally　people　preferred
  to　fight。　Forced　by　circumstances；　Europe　became　an　armed
  camp　and　there　was　a　demand　for　strong　leadership。　Both
  King　and　Emperor　were　far　away。　The　frontiersmen　（and
  most　of　Europe　in　the　year　1000　was　‘‘frontier''）　must　help
  themselves。　They　willingly　submitted　to　the　representatives
  of　the　king　who　were　sent　to　administer　the　outlying　districts；
  PROVIDED　THEY　COULD　PROTECT　THEM　AGAINST　THEIR　ENEMIES。
  Soon　central　Europe　was　dotted　with　small　principalities；
  each　one　ruled　by　a　duke　or　a　count　or　a　baron　or　a　bishop；　as
  the　case　might　be；　and　organised　as　a　fighting　unit。　These
  dukes　and　counts　and　barons　had　sworn　to　be　faithful　to　the
  king　who　had　given　them　their　‘‘feudum''　（hence　our　word
  ‘‘feudal；''）　in　return　for　their　loyal　services　and　a　certain
  amount　of　taxes。　But　travel　in　those　days　was　slow　and　the
  means　of　communication　were　exceedingly　poor。　The　royal
  or　imperial　administrators　therefore　enjoyed　great　independence；
  and　within　the　boundaries　of　their　own　province　they
  assumed　most　of　the　rights　which　in　truth　belonged　to　the　king。
  But　you　would　make　a　mistake　if　you　supposed　that　the
  people　of　the　eleventh　century　objected　to　this　form　of
  government。　They　supported　Feudalism　because　it　was　a　very
  practical　and　necessary　institution。　Their　Lord　and　Master
  usually　lived　in　a　big　stone　house　erected　on　the　top　of　a　steep
  rock　or　built　between　deep　moats；　but　within　sight　of　his
  subjects。　In　case　of　danger　the　subjects　found　shelter　behind
  the　walls　of　the　baronial　stronghold。　That　is　why　they　tried
  to　live　as　near　the　castle　as　possible　and　it　accounts　for　the
  many　European　cities　which　began　their　career　around　a　feudal
  fortress。
  But　the　knight　of　the　early　middle　ages　was　much　more
  than　a　professional　soldier。　He　was　the　civil　servant　of　that
  day。　He　was　the　judge　of　his　community　and　he　was　the
  chief　of　police。　He　caught　the　highwaymen　and　protected
  the　wandering　pedlars　who　were　the　merchants　of　the　eleventh
  century。　He　looked　after　the　dikes　so　that　the　countryside
  should　not　be　flooded　（just　as　the　first　noblemen　had　done
  in　the　valley　of　the　Nile　four　thousand　years　before）。　He
  encouraged　the　Troubadours　who　wandered　from　place　to　place
  telling　the　stories　of　the　ancient　heroes　who　had　fought　in　the
  great　wars　of　the　migrations。　Besides；　he　protected　the　churches
  and　the　monasteries　within　his　territory；　and　although　he　could
  neither　read　nor　write；　（it　was　considered　unmanly　to　know
  such　things；）　he　employed　a　number　of　priests　who　kept　his
  accounts　and　who　registered　the　marriages　and　the　births　and
  the　deaths　which　occurred　within　the　baronial　or　ducal　domains。
  In　the　fifteenth　century　the　kings　once　more　became　strong
  enough　to　exercise　those　powers　which　belonged　to　them　because
  they　were　‘‘anointed　of　God。''　Then　the　feudal　knights　lost
  their　former　independence。　Reduced　to　the　rank　of　country
  squires；　they　no　longer　filled　a　need　and　soon　they　became　a
  nuisance。　But　Europe　would　have　perished　without　the　‘‘feudal
  system''　of　the　dark　ages。　There　were　many　bad　knights
  as　there　are　many　bad　people　to…day。　But　generally　speaking；
  the　rough…fisted　barons　of　the　twelfth　and　thirteenth　century
  were　hard…working　administrators　who　rendered　a　most　useful
  service　to　the　cause　of　progress。　During　that　era　the　noble
  torch　of　learning　and　art　which　had　illuminated　the　world　of
  the　Egyptians　and　the　Greeks　and　the　Romans　was　burning
  very　low。　Without　the　knights　and　their　good　friends；　the
  monks；　civilisation　would　have　been　extinguished　entirely；　and
  the　human　race　would　have　been　forced　to　begin　once　more
  where　the　cave…man　had　left　off。
  CHIVALRY
  CHIVALRY
  IT　was　quite　natural　that　the　professional　fighting…men　of
  the　Middle　Ages　should　try　to　establish　some　sort　of　organisation
  for　their　mutual　benefit　and　protection。　Out　of　this　need
  for　close　organisation；　Knighthood　or　Chivalry　was　born。
  We　know　very　little　about　the　origins　of　Knighthood。　But
  as　the　system　developed；　it　gave　the　world　something　which　it
  needed　very　badlya　definite　rule　of　conduct　which　softened
  the　barbarous　customs　of　that　day　and　made　life　more　livable
  than　it　had　been　during　the　five　hundred　years　of　the　Dark
  Ages。　It　was　not　an　easy　task　to　civilise　the　rough　frontiersmen
  who　had　spent　most　of　their　time　fighting　Mohammedans
  and　Huns　and　Norsemen。　Often　they　were　guilty　of　backsliding；
  and　having　vowed　all　sorts　of　oaths　about　mercy　and
  charity　in　the　morning；　they　wou