all　the　land　from　the　Gates　of　Hercules　to　Mount　Taurus。''
  Rome　produced　famous　generals　and　equally　distinguished
  statesmen　and　cut…throats；　and　Roman　armies　fought　all　over
  the　world。　But　the　Roman　empire…making　was　done　without
  a　preconceived　plan。　The　average　Roman　was　a　very　matter…
  of…fact　citizen。　He　disliked　theories　about　government。　When
  someone　began　to　recite　‘‘eastward　the　course　of　Roman　Empire；
  etc。；　etc。；''　he　hastily　left　the　forum。　He　just　continued
  to　take　more　and　more　land　because　circumstances　forced　him
  to　do　so。　He　was　not　driven　by　ambition　or　by　greed。　Both
  by　nature　and　inclination　he　was　a　farmer　and　wanted　to　stay
  at　home。　But　when　he　was　attacked　he　was　obliged　to　defend
  himself　and　when　the　enemy　happened　to　cross　the　sea　to　ask
  for　aid　in　a　distant　country　then　the　patient　Roman　marched
  many　dreary　miles　to　defeat　this　dangerous　foe　and　when　this
  had　been　accomplished；　he　stayed　behind　to　adminster｛sic｝　his
  newly　conquered　provinces　lest　they　fall　into　the　hands　of
  wandering　Barbarians　and　become　themselves　a　menace　to
  Roman　safety。　It　sounds　rather　complicated　and　yet　to　the
  contemporaries　it　was　so　very　simple；　as　you　shall　see　in　a　moment。
  In　the　year　203　B。C。　Scipio　had　crossed　the　African　Sea
  and　had　carried　the　war　into　Africa。　Carthage　had　called　Hannibal
  back。　Badly　supported　by　his　mercenaries；　Hannibal
  had　been　defeated　near　Zama。　The　Romans　had　asked　for　his
  surrender　and　Hannibal　had　fled　to　get　aid　from　the　kings　of
  Macedonia　and　Syria；　as　I　told　you　in　my　last　chapter。
  The　rulers　of　these　two　countries　（remnants　of　the　Empire
  of　Alexander　the　Great）　just　then　were　contemplating　an
  expedition　against　Egypt。　They　hoped　to　divide　the　rich　Nile
  valley　between　themselves。　The　king　of　Egypt　had　heard　of
  this　and　he　had　asked　Rome　to　come　to　his　support。　The　stage
  was　set　for　a　number　of　highly　interesting　plots　and　counter…
  plots。　But　the　Romans；　with　their　lack　of　imagination；　rang
  the　curtain　down　before　the　play　had　been　fairly　started。
  Their　legions　completely　defeated　the　heavy　Greek　phalanx
  which　was　still　used　by　the　Macedonians　as　their　battle　formation。
  That　happened　in　the　year　197　B。C。　at　the　battle　in　the
  plains　of　Cynoscephalae；　or　‘‘Dogs'　Heads；''　in　central　Thessaly。
  The　Romans　then　marched　southward　to　Attica　and　informed
  the　Greeks　that　they　had　come　to　‘‘deliver　the　Hellenes
  from　the　Macedonian　yoke。''　The　Greeks；　having　learned
  nothing　in　their　years　of　semi…slavery；　used　their　new　freedom
  in　a　most　unfortunate　way。　All　the　little　city…states　once　more
  began　to　quarrel　with　each　other　as　they　had　done　in　the　good
  old　days。　The　Romans；　who　had　little　understanding　and　less
  love　for　these　silly　bickerings　of　a　race　which　they　rather　despised；
  showed　great　forebearance。　But　tiring　of　these　endless
  dissensions　they　lost　patience；　invaded　Greece；　burned　down
  Corinth　（to　‘‘encourage　the　other　Greeks''）　and　sent　a　Roman
  governor　to　Athens　to　rule　this　turbulent　province。　In　this
  way；　Macedonia　and　Greece　became　buffer　states　which　protected
  Rome's　eastern　frontier。
  Meanwhile　right　across　the　Hellespont　lay　the　Kingdom　of
  Syria；　and　Antiochus　III；　who　ruled　that　vast　land；　had　shown
  great　eagerness　when　his　distinguished　guest；　General　Han…
  nibal；　explained　to　him　how　easy　it　would　be　to　invade　Italy
  and　sack　the　city　of　Rome。
  Lucius　Scipio；　a　brother　of　Scipio　the　African　fighter　who
  had　defeated　Hannibal　and　his　Carthaginians　at　Zama；　was
  sent　to　Asia　Minor。　He　destroyed　the　armies　of　the　Syrian
  king　near　Magnesia　（in　the　year　190　B。C。）　Shortly　afterwards；
  Antiochus　was　lynched　by　his　own　people。　Asia　Minor
  became　a　Roman　protectorate　and　the　small　City…Republic　of
  Rome　was　mistress　of　most　of　the　lands　which　bordered　upon
  the　Mediterranean。
  THE　ROMAN　EMPIRE
  HOW　THE　REPUBLIC　OF　ROME　AFTER　CENTURIES
  OF　UNREST　AND　REVOLUTION　BECAME
  AN　EMPIRE
  WHEN　the　Roman　armies　returned　from　these　many　victorious
  campaigns；　they　were　received　with　great　jubilation。
  Alas　and　alack！　this　sudden　glory　did　not　make　the　country　any
  happier。　On　the　contrary。　The　endless　campaigns　had　ruined
  the　farmers　who　had　been　obliged　to　do　the　hard　work　of　Empire
  making。　It　had　placed　too　much　power　in　the　hands　of　the
  successful　generals　（and　their　private　friends）　who　had　used
  the　war　as　an　excuse　for　wholesale　robbery。
  The　old　Roman　Republic　had　been　proud　of　the　simplicity
  which　had　characterised　the　lives　of　her　famous　men。　The
  new　Republic　felt　ashamed　of　the　shabby　coats　and　the　high
  principles　which　had　been　fashionable　in　the　days　of　its　grandfathers。
  It　became　a　land　of　rich　people　ruled　by　rich　people
  for　the　benefit　of　rich　people。　As　such　it　was　doomed　to
  disastrous　failure；　as　I　shall　now　tell　you。
  Within　less　than　a　century　and　a　half。　Rome　had　become
  the　mistress　of　practically　all　the　land　around　the　Mediterranean。
  In　those　early　days　of　history　a　prisoner　of　war　lost
  his　freedom　and　became　a　slave。　The　Roman　regarded　war　as
  a　very　serious　business　and　he　showed　no　mercy　to　a　conquered
  foe。　After　the　fall　of　Carthage；　the　Carthaginian　women　and
  children　were　sold　into　bondage　together　with　their　own　slaves。
  And　a　like　fate　awaited　the　obstinate　inhabitants　of　Greece　and
  Macedonia　and　Spain　and　Syria　when　they　dared　to　revolt
  against　the　Roman　power。
  Two　thousand　years　ago　a　slave　was　merely　a　piece　of
  machinery。　Nowadays　a　rich　man　invests　his　money　in　factories。
  The　rich　people　of　Rome　（senators；　generals　and　war…
  profiteers）　invested　theirs　in　land　and　in　slaves。　The　land
  they　bought　or　took　in　the　newly…acquired　provinces。　The
  slaves　they　bought　in　open　market　wherever　they　happened　to
  be　cheapest。　During　most　of　the　third　and　second　centuries
  before　Christ　there　was　a　plentiful　supply；　and　as　a　result　the
  landowners　worked　their　slaves　until　they　dropped　dead　in　their
  tracks；　when　they　bought　new　ones　at　the　nearest　bargain…counter
  of　Corinthian　or　Carthaginian　captives。
  And　now　behold　the　fate　of　the　freeborn　farmer！
  He　had　done　his　duty　toward　Rome　and　he　had　fought　her
  battles　without　complaint。　But　when　he　came　home　after　ten；
  fifteen　or　twenty　years；　his　lands　were　covered　with　weeds　and
  his　family　had　been　ruined。　But　he　was　a　strong　man　and
  willing　to　begin　life　anew。　He　sowed　and　planted　and　waited
  for　the　harvest。　He　carried　his　grain　to　the　market　together
  with　his　cattle　and　his　poultry；　to　find　that　the　large　landowners
  who　worked　their　estates　with　slaves　could　underbid　him　all
  along　the　line。　For　a　couple　of　years　he　tried　to　hold　his　own。
  Then　he　gave　up　in　despair。　He　left　the　country　and　he　went
  to　the　nearest　city。　In　the　city　he　was　as　hungry　as　he　had　been
  before　on　the　land。　But　he　shared　his　misery　with　thousands
  of　other　disinherited　beings。　They　crouched　together　in　filthy
  hovels　in　the　suburbs　of　the　large　cities。　They　were　apt
  to　get　sick　and　die　from　terrible　epidemics。　They　were　all
  profoundly　discontented。　They　had　fought　for　their　country　and
  this　was　their　reward。　They　were　always　willing　to　listen　to
  those　plausible　spell…binders　who　gather　around　a　public
  grievance　like　so　many　hungry　vultures；　and　soon　they　became　a
  grave　menace　to　the　safety　of　the　state。
  But　the　class　of　the　newly…rich　shrugged　its　shoulders。
  ‘‘We　have　our　army　and　our　policemen；''　they　argued；　‘‘they
  will　keep　the　mob　in　order。''　And　they　hid　themselves　behind
  the　high　walls　of　their　pleasant　villas　and　cultivated　their
  gardens　and　read　the　poems　of　a　certain　Homer　which　a　Greek
  slave　had　just　translated　into　very　pleasing　Latin　hexameters。
  In　a　few　families　however　the　old　tradition　of　unselfish
  service　to　the　Commonwealth　continued。　Cornelia；　the　daughter
  of　Scipio　Africanus；　had　been　married　to　a　Roman　by　the
  name　of　Gracchus。　She　had　two　sons；　Tiberius　and　Gaius。
  When　the　boys　grew　up　they　entered　politics　and　tried　to　bring
  about　certain　much…needed　reforms。　A　census　had　shown
  that　most　of　the　land　of　the　Italian　peninsula　was　owned　by
  two　thousand　noble　families。　Tiberius　Gracchus；　having　been
  elected　a　Tribune；　tried　to　help　the　freemen。　He　revived　two
  ancient　laws　which　restricted　the　number　of　acres　which　a　single
  owner　might　possess。　In　this　way　he　hoped　to　revive　the
  valuable　old　class　of　small　and　independent　freeholders。　The
  newly…rich　called　him　a　robber　and　an　enemy　of　the　state。
  There　were　street　riots。　A　party　of　thugs　was　hired　to　kill　the
  popular　Tribune。　Tiberius　Gracchus　was　attacked　when　he
  entered　the　assembly　and　was　beaten　to　death。　Ten　years　later
  his　brother　Gaius　tried　the　experiment　of　reforming　a　nation
  against　the　expressed　wishes　of　a　strong　privileged　class。　He
  passed　a　‘‘poor　law''　which　was　meant　to　help　the　destitute
  farmers。　Eventually　it　made　the　greater　part　of　the　Roman
  citizens　into　professional　beggars。
  He　established　coloni