told　you　how　he　was　the　most　defenceless　of　the　many　animals
  that　roamed　through　the　early　wilderness　of　the　five　continents；
  but　being　possessed　of　a　larger　and　better　brain；　he　managed　to
  hold　his　own。
  Then　came　the　glaciers　and　the　many　centuries　of　cold
  weather；　and　life　on　this　planet　became　so　difficult　that　man　was
  obliged　to　think　three　times　as　hard　as　ever　before　if　he　wished
  to　survive。　Since；　however；　that　‘‘wish　to　survive''　was　（and　is）
  the　mainspring　which　keeps　every　living　being　going　full　tilt　to
  the　last　gasp　of　its　breath；　the　brain　of　glacial　man　was　set　to
  work　in　all　earnestness。　Not　only　did　these　hardy　people　manage
  to　exist　through　the　long　cold　spells　which　killed　many
  ferocious　animals；　but　when　the　earth　became　warm　and　comfortable
  once　more；　prehistoric　man　had　learned　a　number　of
  things　which　gave　him　such　great　advantages　over　his　less　intelligent
  neighbors　that　the　danger　of　extinction　（a　very　serious
  one　during　the　first　half　million　years　of　man's　residence　upon
  this　planet）　became　a　very　remote　one。
  I　told　you　how　these　earliest　ancestors　of　ours　were　slowly
  plodding　along　when　suddenly　（and　for　reasons　that　are　not
  well　understood）　the　people　who　lived　in　the　valley　of　the　Nile
  rushed　ahead　and　almost　over　night；　created　the　first　centre　of
  civilisation。
  Then　I　showed　you　Mesopotamia；　‘‘the　land　between　the
  rivers；''　which　was　the　second　great　school　of　the　human　race。
  And　I　made　you　a　map　of　the　little　island　bridges　of　the　AEgean
  Sea；　which　carried　the　knowledge　and　the　science　of　the　old
  east　to　the　young　west；　where　lived　the　Greeks。
  Next　I　told　you　of　an　Indo…European　tribe；　called　the　Hellenes；
  who　thousands　of　years　before　had　left　the　heart　of
  Asia　and　who　had　in　the　eleventh　century　before　our　era　pushed
  their　way　into　the　rocky　peninsula　of　Greece　and　who；　since
  then；　have　been　known　to　us　as　the　Greeks。　And　I　told
  you　the　story　of　the　little　Greek　cities　that　were　really　states；
  where　the　civilisation　of　old　Egypt　and　Asia　was　transfigured
  （that　is　a　big　word；　but　you　can　‘‘figure　out''　what　it　means）
  into　something　quite　new；　something　that　was　much　nobler　and
  finer　than　anything　that　had　gone　before。
  When　you　look　at　the　map　you　will　see　how　by　this　time
  civilisation　has　described　a　semi…circle。　It　begins　in　Egypt；
  and　by　way　of　Mesopotamia　and　the　AEgean　Islands　it　moves
  westward　until　it　reaches　the　European　continent。　The　first
  four　thousand　years；　Egyptians　and　Babylonians　and　Phoenicians
  and　a　large　number　of　Semitic　tribes　（please　remember
  that　the　Jews　were　but　one　of　a　large　number　of　Semitic　peoples）
  have　carried　the　torch　that　was　to　illuminate　the　world。
  They　now　hand　it　over　to　the　Indo…European　Greeks；　who　become
  the　teachers　of　another　Indo…European　tribe；　called　the
  Romans。　But　meanwhile　the　Semites　have　pushed　westward
  along　the　northern　coast　of　Africa　and　have　made　themselves
  the　rulers　of　the　western　half　of　the　Mediterranean　just　when
  the　eastern　half　has　become　a　Greek　（or　Indo…European）　possession。
  This；　as　you　shall　see　in　a　moment；　leads　to　a　terrible　conflict
  between　the　two　rival　races；　and　out　of　their　struggle　arises
  the　victorious　Roman　Empire；　which　is　to　take　this　Egyptian…
  Mesopotamian…Greek　civilisation　to　the　furthermost　corners　of
  the　European　continent；　where　it　serves　as　the　foundation　upon
  which　our　modern　society　is　based。
  I　know　all　this　sounds　very　complicated；　but　if　you　get　hold
  of　these　few　principles；　the　rest　of　our　history　will　become　a
  great　deal　simpler。　The　maps　will　make　clear　what　the　words
  fail　to　tell。　And　after　this　short　intermission；　we　go　back　to
  our　story　and　give　you　an　account　of　the　famous　war　between
  Carthage　and　Rome。
  ROME　AND　CARTHAGE
  THE　SEMITIC　COLONY　OF　CARTHAGE　ON　THE
  NORTHERN　COAST　OF　AFRICA　AND　THE
  INDO…EUROPEAN　CITY　OF　ROME　ON　THE
  WEST　COAST　OF　ITALY　FOUGHT　EACH
  OTHER　FOR　THE　POSSESSION　OF　THE
  WESTERN　MEDITERRANEAN　AND　CARTHAGE
  WAS　DESTROYED
  THE　little　Phoenician　trading　post　of　Kart…hadshat　stood
  on　a　low　hill　which　overlooked　the　African　Sea；　a　stretch　of
  water　ninety　miles　wide　which　separates　Africa　from　Europe。
  It　was　an　ideal　spot　for　a　commercial　centre。　Almost　too　ideal。
  It　grew　too　fast　and　became　too　rich。　When　in　the　sixth　century
  before　our　era；　Nebuchadnezzar　of　Babylon　destroyed
  Tyre；　Carthage　broke　off　all　further　relations　with　the　Mother
  Country　and　became　an　independent　statethe　great　western
  advance…post　of　the　Semitic　races。
  Unfortunately　the　city　had　inherited　many　of　the　traits
  which　for　a　thousand　years　had　been　characteristic　of　the
  Phoenicians。　It　was　a　vast　business…house；　protected　by　a
  strong　navy；　indifferent　to　most　of　the　finer　aspects　of　life。
  The　city　and　the　surrounding　country　and　the　distant　colonies
  were　all　ruled　by　a　small　but　exceedingly　powerful　group　of
  rich　men；　The　Greek　word　for　rich　is　‘‘ploutos''　and　the　Greeks
  called　such　a　government　by　‘‘rich　men''　a　‘‘Plutocracy。''　Carthage
  was　a　plutocracy　and　the　real　power　of　the　state　lay　in
  the　hands　of　a　dozen　big　ship…owners　and　mine…owners　and
  merchants　who　met　in　the　back　room　of　an　office　and　regarded
  their　common　Fatherland　as　a　business　enterprise　which　ought
  to　yield　them　a　decent　profit。　They　were　however　wide　awake
  and　full　of　energy　and　worked　very　hard。
  As　the　years　went　by　the　influence　of　Carthage　upon　her
  neighbours　increased　until　the　greater　part　of　the　African
  coast；　Spain　and　certain　regions　of　France　were　Carthaginian
  possessions；　and　paid　tribute；　taxes　and　dividends　to　the　mighty
  city　on　the　African　Sea。
  Of　course；　such　a　‘‘plutocracy''　was　forever　at　the　mercy　of
  the　crowd。　As　long　as　there　was　plenty　of　work　and　wages
  were　high；　the　majority　of　the　citizens　were　quite　contented；
  allowed　their　‘‘betters''　to　rule　them　and　asked　no　embarrassing
  questions。　But　when　no　ships　left　the　harbor；　when　no　ore
  was　brought　to　the　smelting…ovens；　when　dockworkers　and
  stevedores　were　thrown　out　of　employment；　then　there　were
  grumblings　and　there　was　a　demand　that　the　popular　assembly
  be　called　together　as　in　the　olden　days　when　Carthage　had
  been　a　self…governing　republic。
  To　prevent　such　an　occurrence　the　plutocracy　was　obliged
  to　keep　the　business　of　the　town　going　at　full　speed。　They
  had　managed　to　do　this　very　successfully　for　almost　five　hun…
  dred　years　when　they　were　greatly　disturbed　by　certain　rumors
  which　reached　them　from　the　western　coast　of　Italy。　It　was
  said　that　a　little　village　on　the　banks　of　the　Tiber　had　suddenly
  risen　to　great　power　and　was　making　itself　the　acknowledged
  leader　of　all　the　Latin　tribes　who　inhabited　central　Italy。
  It　was　also　said　that　this　village；　which　by　the　way　was　called
  Rome；　intended　to　build　ships　and　go　after　the　commerce　of
  Sicily　and　the　southern　coast　of　France。
  Carthage　could　not　possibly　tolerate　such　competition。　The
  young　rival　must　be　destroyed　lest　the　Carthaginian　rulers
  lose　their　prestige　as　the　absolute　rulers　of　the　western
  Mediterranean。　The　rumors　were　duly　investigated　and　in　a
  general　way　these　were　the　facts　that　came　to　light。
  The　west　coast　of　Italy　had　long　been　neglected　by　civilisation。
  Whereas　in　Greece　all　the　good　harbours　faced　eastward
  and　enjoyed　a　full　view　of　the　busy　islands　of　the　AEgean；
  the　west　coast　of　Italy　contemplated　nothing　more　exciting
  than　the　desolate　waves　of　the　Mediterranean。　The　country
  was　poor。　It　was　therefore　rarely　visited　by　foreign　merchants
  and　the　natives　were　allowed　to　live　in　undisturbed　possession
  of　their　hills　and　their　marshy　plains。
  The　first　serious　invasion　of　this　land　came　from　the　north。
  At　an　unknown　date　certain　Indo…European　tribes　had　managed
  to　find　their　way　through　the　passes　of　the　Alps　and　had
  pushed　southward　until　they　had　filled　the　heel　and　the　toe　of
  the　famous　Italian　boot　with　their　villages　and　their　flocks。
  Of　these　early　conquerors　we　know　nothing。　No　Homer　sang
  their　glory。　Their　own　accounts　of　the　foundation　of　Rome
  （written　eight　hundred　years　later　when　the　little　city　had　become
  the　centre　of　an　Empire）　are　fairy　stories　and　do　not　belong
  in　a　history。　Romulus　and　Remus　jumping　across　each
  other's　walls　（I　always　forget　who　jumped　across　whose　wall）
  make　entertaining　reading；　but　the　foundation　of　the　City　of
  Rome　was　a　much　more　prosaic　affair。　Rome　began　as　a　thousand
  American　cities　have　done；　by　being　a　convenient　place
  for　barter　and　horse…trading。　It　lay　in　the　heart　of　the　plains
  of　central　Italy　The　Tiber　provided　direct　access　to　the　sea。
  The　land…road　from　north　to　south　found　here　a　convenient
  ford　which　could　be　used　all　the　year　around。　And　seven　little
  hills　along　the　banks　of　the　river　offered　the　inhabitants　a　safe
  shelter　against　their　enemies　who　lived　in　the　mountains　and
  those　who　lived　beyond　the　horizon　of　the　nearby　sea。