tribes　who　had　invaded　their　country　and　had　destroyed　their
  civilisation　or　absorbed　it　until　it　had　lost　all　trace　of　originality。
  And　this　proved　to　be　the　case。　In　the　late　seventies　of
  the　last　century；　Schliemann　visited　the　ruins　of　Mycenae；　ruins
  which　were　so　old　that　Roman　guide…books　marvelled　at　their
  antiquity。　There　again；　beneath　the　flat　slabs　of　stone　of　a
  small　round　enclosure；　Schliemann　stumbled　upon　a　wonderful
  treasure…trove；　which　had　been　left　behind　by　those　mysterious
  people　who　had　covered　the　Greek　coast　with　their　cities　and
  who　had　built　walls；　so　big　and　so　heavy　and　so　strong；　that
  the　Greeks　called　them　the　work　of　the　Titans；　those　god…like
  giants　who　in　very　olden　days　had　used　to　play　ball　with
  mountain　peaks。
  A　very　careful　study　of　these　many　relics　has　done　away
  with　some　of　the　romantic　features　of　the　story。　The　makers
  of　these　early　works　of　art　and　the　builders　of　these　strong
  fortresses　were　no　sorcerers；　but　simple　sailors　and　traders。
  They　had　lived　in　Crete；　and　on　the　many　small　islands　of　the
  AEgean　Sea。　They　had　been　hardy　mariners　and　they　had
  turned　the　AEgean　into　a　center　of　commerce　for　the　exchange
  of　goods　between　the　highly　civilised　east　and　the　slowly
  developing　wilderness　of　the　European　mainland。
  For　more　than　a　thousand　years　they　had　maintained　an
  island　empire　which　had　developed　a　very　high　form　of　art。
  Indeed　their　most　important　city；　Cnossus；　on　the　northern
  coast　of　Crete；　had　been　entirely　modern　in　its　insistence　upon
  hygiene　and　comfort。　The　palace　had　been　properly　drained
  and　the　houses　had　been　provided　with　stoves　and　the　Cnossians
  had　been　the　first　people　to　make　a　daily　use　of　the　hitherto
  unknown　bathtub。　The　palace　of　their　King　had　been　famous
  for　its　winding　staircases　and　its　large　banqueting　hall。　The
  cellars　underneath　this　palace；　where　the　wine　and　the　grain
  and　the　olive…oil　were　stored；　had　been　so　vast　and　had　so
  greatly　impressed　the　first　Greek　visitors；　that　they　had　given
  rise　to　the　story　of　the　‘‘labyrinth；''　the　name　which　we　give
  to　a　structure　with　so　many　complicated　passages　that　it　is
  almost　impossible　to　find　our　way　out；　once　the　front　door　has
  closed　upon　our　frightened　selves。
  But　what　finally　became　of　this　great　AEgean　Empire　and
  what　caused　its　sudden　downfall；　that　I　can　not　tell。
  The　Cretans　were　familiar　with　the　art　of　writing；　but　no
  one　has　yet　been　able　to　decipher　their　inscriptions。　Their
  history　therefore　is　unknown　to　us。　We　have　to　reconstruct
  the　record　of　their　adventures　from　the　ruins　which　the
  AEgeans　have　left　behind。　These　ruins　make　it　clear　that　the
  AEgean　world　was　suddenly　conquered　by　a　less　civilised　race
  which　had　recently　come　from　the　plains　of　northern　Europe。
  Unless　we　are　very　much　mistaken；　the　savages　who　were
  responsible　for　the　destruction　of　the　Cretan　and　the　AEgean
  civilisation　were　none　other　than　certain　tribes　of　wandering
  shepherds　who　had　just　taken　possession　of　the　rocky　peninsula
  between　the　Adriatic　and　the　AEgean　seas　and　who　are
  known　to　us　as　Greeks。
  THE　GREEKS
  MEANWHILE　THE　INDO…EUROPEAN　TRIBE
  OF　THE　HELLENES　WAS　TAKING
  POSSESSION　OF　GREECE
  THE　Pyramids　were　a　thousand　years　old　and　were　beginning
  to　show　the　first　signs　of　decay；　and　Hammurabi；　the
  wise　king　of　Babylon；　had　been　dead　and　buried　several　centuries；
  when　a　small　tribe　of　shepherds　left　their　homes　along
  the　banks　of　the　River　Danube　and　wandered　southward　in
  search　of　fresh　pastures。　They　called　themselves　Hellenes；
  after　Hellen；　the　son　of　Deucalion　and　Pyrrha。　According
  to　the　old　myths　these　were　the　only　two　human　beings　who
  had　escaped　the　great　flood；　which　countless　years　before　had
  destroyed　all　the　people　of　the　world；　when　they　had　grown
  so　wicked　that　they　disgusted　Zeus；　the　mighty　God；　who　lived
  on　Mount　Olympus。
  Of　these　early　Hellenes　we　know　nothing。　Thucydides；
  the　historian　of　the　fall　of　Athens；　describing　his　earliest
  ancestors；　said　that　they　‘‘did　not　amount　to　very　much；''　and
  this　was　probably　true。　They　were　very　ill…mannered。　They
  lived　like　pigs　and　threw　the　bodies　of　their　enemies　to　the　wild
  dogs　who　guarded　their　sheep。　They　had　very　little　respect
  for　other　people's　rights；　and　they　killed　the　natives　of　the
  Greek　peninsula　（who　were　called　the　Pelasgians）　and　stole
  their　farms　and　took　their　cattle　and　made　their　wives　and
  daughters　slaves　and　wrote　endless　songs　praising　the　courage
  of　the　clan　of　the　Achaeans；　who　had　led　the　Hellenic　advance…
  guard　into　the　mountains　of　Thessaly　and　the　Peloponnesus。
  But　here　and　there；　on　the　tops　of　high　rocks；　they　saw
  the　castles　of　the　AEgeans　and　those　they　did　not　attack　for
  they　feared　the　metal　swords　and　the　spears　of　the　AEgean
  soldiers　and　knew　that　they　could　not　hope　to　defeat　them　with
  their　clumsy　stone　axes。
  For　many　centuries　they　continued　to　wander　from　valley
  to　valley　and　from　mountain　side　to　mountain　side　Then　the
  whole　of　the　land　had　been　occupied　and　the　migration　had
  come　to　an　end。
  That　moment　was　the　beginning　of　Greek　civilisation。　The
  Greek　farmer；　living　within　sight　of　the　AEgean　colonies；
  was　finally　driven　by　curiosity　to　visit　his　haughty　neighbours。
  He　discovered　that　he　could　learn　many　useful　things　from
  the　men　who　dwelt　behind　the　high　stone　walls　of　Mycenae；　and
  Tiryns。
  He　was　a　clever　pupil。　Within　a　short　time　he　mastered
  the　art　of　handling　those　strange　iron　weapons　which　the
  AEgeans　had　brought　from　Babylon　and　from　Thebes。　He
  came　to　understand　the　mysteries　of　navigation。　He　began
  to　build　little　boats　for　his　own　use。
  And　when　he　had　learned　everything　the　AEgeans　could
  teach　him　he　turned　upon　his　teachers　and　drove　them　back
  to　their　islands。　Soon　afterwards　he　ventured　forth　upon　the
  sea　and　conquered　all　the　cities　of　the　AEgean。　Finally　in　the
  fifteenth　century　before　our　era　he　plundered　and　ravaged
  Cnossus　and　ten　centuries　after　their　first　appearance　upon
  the　scene　the　Hellenes　were　the　undisputed　rulers　of　Greece；
  of　the　AEgean　and　of　the　coastal　regions　of　Asia　Minor。　Troy；
  the　last　great　commercial　stronghold　of　the　older　civilisation；
  was　destroyed　in　the　eleventh　century　B。C。　European　history
  was　to　begin　in　all　seriousness。
  THE　GREEK　CITIES
  THE　GREEK　CITIES　THAT　WERE　REALLY
  STATES
  WE　modern　people　love　the　sound　of　the　word　‘‘big。''　We
  pride　ourselves　upon　the　fact　that　we　belong　to　the　‘‘biggest''
  country　in　the　world　and　possess　the　‘‘biggest''　navy　and　grow
  the　‘‘biggest''　oranges　and　potatoes；　and　we　love　to　live　in
  cities　of　‘‘millions''　of　inhabitants　and　when　we　are　dead　we
  are　buried　in　the　‘‘biggest　cemetery　of　the　whole　state。''
  A　citizen　of　ancient　Greece；　could　he　have　heard　us　talk；
  would　not　have　known　what　we　meant。　‘‘Moderation　in　all
  things''　was　the　ideal　of　his　life　and　mere　bulk　did　not　impress
  him　at　all。　And　this　love　of　moderation　was　not　merely　a
  hollow　phrase　used　upon　special　occasions：　it　influenced　the
  life　of　the　Greeks　from　the　day　of　their　birth　to　the　hour　of
  their　death。　It　was　part　of　their　literature　and　it　made　them
  build　small　but　perfect　temples。　It　found　expression　in　the
  clothes　which　the　men　wore　and　in　the　rings　and　the　bracelets
  of　their　wives。　It　followed　the　crowds　that　went　to　the　theatre
  and　made　them　hoot　down　any　playwright　who　dared　to
  sin　against　the　iron　law　of　good　taste　or　good　sense。
  The　Greeks　even　insisted　upon　this　quality　in　their　politicians
  and　in　their　most　popular　athletes。　When　a　powerful
  runner　came　to　Sparta　and　boasted　that　he　could　stand　longer
  on　one　foot　than　any　other　man　in　Hellas　the　people　drove　him
  from　the　city　because　he　prided　himself　upon　an　accomplish…
  ment　at　which　he　could　be　beaten　by　any　common　goose。
  ‘‘That　is　all　very　well；''　you　will　say；　‘‘and　no　doubt　it　is　a
  great　virtue　to　care　so　much　for　moderation　and　perfection；
  but　why　should　the　Greeks　have　been　the　only　people　to　develop
  this　quality　in　olden　times？''　For　an　answer　I　shall
  point　to　the　way　in　which　the　Greeks　lived。
  The　people　of　Egypt　or　Mesopotamia　had　been　the　‘‘subjects''
  of　a　mysterious　Supreme　Ruler　who　lived　miles　and
  miles　away　in　a　dark　palace　and　who　was　rarely　seen　by　the
  masses　of　the　population。　The　Greeks　on　the　other　hand；
  were　‘‘free　citizens''　of　a　hundred　independent　little　‘‘cities''
  the　largest　of　which　counted　fewer　inhabitants　than　a　large
  modern　village。　When　a　peasant　who　lived　in　Ur　said　that　he
  was　a　Babylonian　he　meant　that　he　was　one　of　millions　of
  other　people　who　paid　tribute　to　the　king　who　at　that　particular
  moment　happened　to　be　master　of　western　Asia。　But　when
  a　Greek　said　proudly　that　he　was　an　Athenian　or　a　Theban
  he　spoke　of　a　small　town；　which　was　both　his　home　and　his
  country　and　which　recognised　no　master　but　the　will　of　the
  people　in