stumbled　upon　a　new　and　unsuspected　continent。　An　Austrian
  bishop　equipped　an　expedition　which　was　to　travel　eastward
  and　find　the　home　of　the　Grand　Duke　of　Muscovy；　a
  voyage　which　led　to　complete　failure；　for　Moscow　was　not
  visited　by　western　men　until　a　generation　later。　Meanwhile
  a　certain　Venetian　by　the　name　of　Barbero　had　explored　the
  ruins　of　western　Asia　and　had　brought　back　reports　of　a　most
  curious　language　which　he　had　found　carved　in　the　rocks　of
  the　temples　of　Shiraz　and　engraved　upon　endless　pieces　of
  baked　clay。
  But　Europe　was　busy　with　many　other　things　and　it　was
  not　until　the　end　of　the　eighteenth　century　that　the　first
  ‘‘cuneiform　inscriptions''　（so…called　because　the　letters　were
  wedge…shaped　and　wedge　is　called　‘‘Cuneus''　in　Latin）　were
  brought　to　Europe　by　a　Danish　surveyor；　named　Niebuhr。
  Then　it　took　thirty　years　before　a　patient　German　school…
  master　by　the　name　of　Grotefend　had　deciphered　the　first　four
  letters；　the　D；　the　A；　the　R　and　the　SH；　the　name　of　the　Persian
  King　Darius。　And　another　twenty　years　had　to　go　by
  until　a　British　officer；　Henry　Rawlinson；　who　found　the　famous
  inscription　of　Behistun；　gave　us　a　workable　key　to　the　nail…
  writing　of　western　Asia。
  Compared　to　the　problem　of　deciphering　these　nail…writings；
  the　job　of　Champollion　had　been　an　easy　one。　The
  Egyptians　used　pictures。　But　the　Sumerians；　the　earliest
  inhabitants　of　Mesopotamia；　who　had　hit　upon　the　idea　of
  scratching　their　words　in　tablets　of　clay；　had　discarded　pictures
  entirely　and　had　evolved　a　system　of　V…shaped　figures　which
  showed　little　connection　with　the　pictures　out　of　which　they
  had　been　developed。　A　few　examples　will　show　you　what　I
  mean。　In　the　beginning　a　star；　when　drawn　with　a　nail　into
  a　brick　looked　as　follows：　｛illust。｝　This　sign　however　was　too
  cumbersome　and　after　a　short　while　when　the　meaning　of
  ‘‘heaven''　was　added　to　that　of　star　the　picture　was　simplified
  in　this　way　｛illust。｝　which　made　it　even　more　of　a　puzzle。
  In　the　same　way　an　ox　changed　from　｛illust｝　into　｛illust。｝
  and　a　fish　changed　from　｛illust。｝　into　｛illust。｝　The　sun
  was　originally　a　plain　circle　｛illust。｝　and　became　｛illust。｝
  If　we　were　using　the　Sumerian　script　today　we　would　make　an
  ｛illust。｝　look　like　｛illust。｝。　This　system　of　writing　down　our
  ideas　looks　rather　complicated　but　for　more　than　thirty　centuries
  it　was　used　by　the　Sumerians　and　the　Babylonians　and
  the　Assyrians　and　the　Persians　and　all　the　different　races
  which　forced　their　way　into　the　fertile　valley。
  The　story　of　Mesopotamia　is　one　of　endless　warfare　and
  conquest。　First　the　Sumerians　came　from　the　North。　They
  were　a　white　People　who　had　lived　in　the　mountains。　They
  had　been　accustomed　to　worship　their　Gods　on　the　tops　of
  hills。　After　they　had　entered　the　plain　they　constructed　artificial
  little　hills　on　top　of　which　they　built　their　altars。　They
  did　not　know　how　to　build　stairs　and　they　therefore　surrounded
  their　towers　with　sloping　galleries。　Our　engineers
  have　borrowed　this　idea；　as　you　may　see　in　our　big　railroad
  stations　where　ascending　galleries　lead　from　one　floor　to　another。
  We　may　have　borrowed　other　ideas　from　the　Sumerians
  but　we　do　not　know　it。　The　Sumerians　were　entirely　ab…
  sorbed　by　those　races　that　entered　the　fertile　valley　at　a　later
  date。　Their　towers　however　still　stand　amidst　the　ruins　of
  Mesopotamia。　The　Jews　saw　them　when　they　went　into　exile
  in　the　land　of　Babylon　and　they　called　them　towers　of　BabIlli；
  or　towers　of　Babel。
  In　the　fortieth　century　before　our　era；　the　Sumerians　had
  entered　Mesopotamia。　They　were　soon　afterwards　over…
  powered　by　the　Akkadians；　one　of　the　many　tribes　from　the
  desert　of　Arabia　who　speak　a　common　dialect　and　who　are
  known　as　the　‘‘Semites；''　because　in　the　olden　days　people　believed
  them　to　be　the　direct　descendants　of　Shem；　one　of　the
  three　sons　of　Noah。　A　thousand　years　later；　the　Akkadians
  were　forced　to　submit　to　the　rule　of　the　Amorites；　another
  Semitic　desert　tribe　whose　great　King　Hammurabi　built　himself
  a　magnificent　palace　in　the　holy　city　of　Babylon　and　who
  gave　his　people　a　set　of　laws　which　made　the　Babylonian　state
  the　best　administered　empire　of　the　ancient　world。　Next　the
  Hittites；　whom　you　will　also　meet　in　the　Old　Testament；　over…
  ran　the　Fertile　Valley　and　destroyed　whatever　they　could　not
  carry　away。　They　in　turn　were　vanquished　by　the　followers
  of　the　great　desert　God；　Ashur；　who　called　themselves　Assyrians
  and　who　made　the　city　of　Nineveh　the　center　of　a　vast
  and　terrible　empire　which　conquered　all　of　western　Asia　and
  Egypt　and　gathered　taxes　from　countless　subject　races　until
  the　end　of　the　seventh　century　before　the　birth　of　Christ　when
  the　Chaldeans；　also　a　Semitic　tribe；　re…established　Babylon　and
  made　that　city　the　most　important　capital　of　that　day。
  Nebuchadnezzar；　the　best　known　of　their　Kings；　encouraged
  the　study　of　science；　and　our　modern　knowledge　of　astronomy
  and　mathematics　is　all　based　upon　certain　first　principles　which
  were　discovered　by　the　Chaldeans。　In　the　year　538　B。C。　a
  crude　tribe　of　Persian　shepherds　invaded　this　old　land　and
  overthrew　the　empire　of　the　Chaldeans。　Two　hundred　years
  later；　they　in　turn　were　overthrown　by　Alexander　the　Great；
  who　turned　the　Fertile　Valley；　the　old　melting…pot　of　so　many
  Semitic　races；　into　a　Greek　province。　Next　came　the　Romans
  and　after　the　Romans；　the　Turks；　and　Mesopotamia；　the　second
  centre　of　the　world's　civilisation；　became　a　vast　wilderness
  where　huge　mounds　of　earth　told　a　story　of　ancient　glory。
  MOSES
  THE　STORY　OF　MOSES；　THE　LEADER　OF　THE
  JEWISH　PEOPLE
  SOME　time　during　the　twentieth　century　before　our　era；
  a　small　and　unimportant　tribe　of　Semitic　shepherds　had　left
  its　old　home；　which　was　situated　in　the　land　of　Ur　on　the　mouth
  of　the　Euphrates；　and　had　tried　to　find　new　pastures　within
  the　domain　of　the　Kings　of　Babylonia。　They　had　been　driven
  away　by　the　royal　soldiers　and　they　had　moved　westward
  looking　for　a　little　piece　of　unoccupied　territory　where　they
  might　set　up　their　tents。
  This　tribe　of　shepherds　was　known　as　the　Hebrews　or；　as
  we　call　them；　the　Jews。　They　had　wandered　far　and　wide；
  and　after　many　years　of　dreary　peregrinations　they　had　been
  given　shelter　in　Egypt。　For　more　than　five　centuries　they
  had　dwelt　among　the　Egyptians　and　when　their　adopted　country
  had　been　overrun　by　the　Hyksos　marauders　（as　I　told
  you　in　the　story　of　Egypt）　they　had　managed　to　make　themselves
  useful　to　the　foreign　invader　and　had　been　left　in　the
  undisturbed　possession　of　their　grazing　fields。　But　after　a
  long　war　of　independence　the　Egyptians　had　driven　the
  Hyksos　out　of　the　valley　of　the　Nile　and　then　the　Jews　had
  come　upon　evil　times　for　they　had　been　degraded　to　the　rank
  of　common　slaves　and　they　had　been　forced　to　work　on　the
  royal　roads　and　on　the　Pyramids。　And　as　the　frontiers　were
  guarded　by　the　Egyptian　soldiers　it　had　been　impossible　for
  the　Jews　to　escape。
  After　many　years　of　suffering　they　were　saved　from　their
  miserable　fate　by　a　young　Jew；　called　Moses；　who　for　a　long
  time　had　dwelt　in　the　desert　and　there　had　learned　to　appreciate
  the　simple　virtues　of　his　earliest　ancestors；　who　had　kept
  away　from　cities　and　city…life　and　had　refused　to　let　themselves
  be　corrupted　by　the　ease　and　the　luxury　of　a　foreign
  civilisation。
  Moses　decided　to　bring　his　people　back　to　a　love　of　the　ways
  of　the　patriarchs。　He　succeeded　in　evading　the　Egyptian
  troops　that　were　sent　after　him　and　led　his　fellow　tribesmen
  into　the　heart　of　the　plain　at　the　foot　of　Mount　Sinai。　During
  his　long　and　lonely　life　in　the　desert；　he　had　learned　to
  revere　the　strength　of　the　great　God　of　the　Thunder　and　the
  Storm；　who　ruled　the　high　heavens　and　upon　whom　the　shepherds
  depended　for　life　and　light　and　breath。　This　God；　one
  of　the　many　divinities　who　were　widely　worshipped　in　western
  Asia；　was　called　Jehovah；　and　through　the　teaching　of　Moses；
  he　became　the　sole　Master　of　the　Hebrew　race。
  One　day；　Moses　disappeared　from　the　camp　of　the　Jews。
  It　was　whispered　that　he　had　gone　away　carrying　two　tablets
  of　rough…hewn　stone。　That　afternoon；　the　top　of　the　mountain
  was　lost　to　sight。　The　darkness　of　a　terrible　storm　hid　it　from
  the　eye　of　man。　But　when　Moses　returned；　behold！　there　stood
  engraved　upon　the　tablets　the　words　which　Jehovah　had　spoken
  unto　the　people　of　Israel　amidst　the　crash　of　his　thunder　and
  the　blinding　flashes　of　his　lightning。　And　from　that　moment；
  Jehovah　was　recognised　by　all　the　Jews　as　the　Highest　Master
  of　their　Fate；　the　only　True　God；　who　had　taught　them　how
  to　live　holy　lives　when　he　bade　them　to　follow　the　wise　lessons
  of　his　Ten　Commandments。
  They　followed　Moses　when　he　bade　them　continue　their
  journey　through　the　desert。　They　obeyed　him　when　he　told
  them　what　to　eat　and　drink　and　what　to　avoid　that　they　might
  keep　well　in　the　hot　climate。　And