the　same　level。　　　　　This；　then；　is　one　of　the　great　Scythian　rivers；　the　next　to　it　is　the　Tyras；　which　rises　from　a　great　lake　separating　Scythia　from　the　land　of　the　Neuri；　and　runs　with　a　southerly　course　to　the　sea。　Greeks　dwell　at　the　mouth　of　the　river；　who　are　called　Tyritae。　　　　　The　third　river　is　the　Hypanis。　This　stream　rises　within　the　limits　of　Scythia；　and　has　its　source　in　another　vast　lake；　around　which　wild　white　horses　graze。　The　lake　is　called；　properly　enough；　the　Mother　of　the　Hypanis。　The　Hypanis；　rising　here；　during　the　distance　of　five　days'　navigation　is　a　shallow　stream；　and　the　water　sweet　and　pure；　thence；　however；　to　the　sea；　which　is　a　distance　of　four　days；　it　is　exceedingly　bitter。　This　change　is　caused　by　its　receiving　into　it　at　that　point　a　brook　the　waters　of　which　are　so　bitter　that；　although　it　is　but　a　tiny　rivulet；　it　nevertheless　taints　the　entire　Hypanis；　which　is　a　large　stream　among　those　of　the　second　order。　The　source　of　this　bitter　spring　is　on　the　borders　of　the　Scythian　Husbandmen；　where　they　adjoin　upon　the　Alazonians；　and　the　place　where　it　rises　is　called　in　the　Scythic　tongue　Exampaeus；　which　means　in　our　language；　〃The　Sacred　Ways。〃　The　spring　itself　bears　the　same　name。　The　Tyras　and　the　Hypanis　approach　each　other　in　the　country　of　the　Alazonians；　but　afterwards　separate；　and　leave　a　wide　space　between　their　streams。　　　　　The　fourth　of　the　Scythian　rivers　is　the　Borysthenes。　Next　to　the　Ister；　it　is　the　greatest　of　them　all；　and；　in　my　judgment；　it　is　the　most　productive　river；　not　merely　in　Scythia；　but　in　the　whole　world；　excepting　only　the　Nile；　with　which　no　stream　can　possibly　compare。　It　has　upon　its　banks　the　loveliest　and　most　excellent　pasturages　for　cattle；　it　contains　abundance　of　the　most　delicious　fish；　its　water　is　most　pleasant　to　the　taste；　its　stream　is　limpid；　while　all　the　other　rivers　near　it　are　muddy；　the　richest　harvests　spring　up　along　its　course；　and　where　the　ground　is　not　sown；　the　heaviest　crops　of　grass；　while　salt　forms　in　great　plenty　about　its　mouth　without　human　aid；　and　large　fish　are　taken　in　it　of　the　sort　called　Antacaei；　without　any　prickly　bones；　and　good　for　pickling。　Nor　are　these　the　whole　of　its　marvels。　As　far　inland　as　the　place　named　Gerrhus；　which　is　distant　forty　days'　voyage　from　the　sea；　its　course　is　known；　and　its　direction　is　from　north　to　south；　but　above　this　no　one　has　traced　it；　so　as　to　say　through　what　countries　it　flows。　It　enters　the　territory　of　the　Scythian　Husbandmen　after　running　for　some　time　across　a　desert　region；　and　continues　for　ten　days'　navigation　to　pass　through　the　land　which　they　inhabit。　It　is　the　only　river　besides　the　Nile　the　sources　of　which　are　unknown　to　me；　as　they　are　also　（I　believe）　to　all　the　other　Greeks。　Not　long　before　it　reaches　the　sea；　the　Borysthenes　is　joined　by　the　Hypanis；　which　pours　its　waters　into　the　same　lake。　The　land　that　lies　between　them；　a　narrow　point　like　the　beak　of　a　ship；　is　called　Cape　Hippolaus。　Here　is　a　temple　dedicated　to　Ceres；　and　opposite　the　temple　upon　the　Hypanis　is　the　dwelling…place　of　the　Borysthenites。　But　enough　has　been　said　of　these　streams。　　　　　Next　in　succession　comes　the　fifth　river；　called　the　Panticapes；　which　has；　like　the　Borysthenes；　a　course　from　north　to　south；　and　rises　from　a　lake。　The　space　between　this　river　and　the　Borysthenes　is　occupied　by　the　Scythians　who　are　engaged　in　husbandry。　After　watering　their　country；　the　Panticapes　flows　through　Hylaea；　and　empties　itself　into　the　Borysthenes。　　　　　The　sixth　stream　is　the　Hypacyris；　a　river　rising　from　a　lake；　and　running　directly　through　the　middle　of　the　Nomadic　Scythians。　It　falls　into　the　sea　near　the　city　of　Carcinitis；　leaving　Hylaea　and　the　course　of　Achilles　to　the　right。　　　　　The　seventh　river　is　the　Gerrhus；　which　is　a　branch　thrown　out　by　the　Borysthenes　at　the　point　where　the　course　of　that　stream　first　begins　to　be　known；　to　wit；　the　region　called　by　the　same　name　as　the　stream　itself；　viz。　Gerrhus。　This　river　on　its　passage　towards　the　sea　divides　the　country　of　the　Nomadic　from　that　of　the　Royal　Scyths。　It　runs　into　the　Hypacyris。　　　　　The　eighth　river　is　the　Tanais；　a　stream　which　has　its　source；　far　up　the　country；　in　a　lake　of　vast　size；　and　which　empties　itself　into　another　still　larger　lake；　the　Palus　Maeotis；　whereby　the　country　of　the　Royal　Scythians　is　divided　from　that　of　the　Sauromatae。　The　Tanais　receives　the　waters　of　a　tributary　stream；　called　the　Hyrgis。　　　　　Such　then　are　the　rivers　of　chief　note　in　Scythia。　The　grass　which　the　land　produces　is　more　apt　to　generate　gall　in　the　beasts　that　feed　on　it　than　any　other　grass　which　is　known　to　us；　as　plainly　appears　on　the　opening　of　their　carcases。　　　　　Thus　abundantly　are　the　Scythians　provided　with　the　most　important　necessaries。　Their　manners　and　customs　come　now　to　be　described。　They　worship　only　the　following　gods；　namely；　Vesta；　whom　they　reverence　beyond　all　the　rest；　Jupiter；　and　Tellus；　whom　they　consider　to　be　the　wife　of　Jupiter；　and　after　these　Apollo；　Celestial　Venus；　Hercules；　and　Mars。　These　gods　are　worshipped　by　the　whole　nation：　the　Royal　Scythians　offer　sacrifice　likewise　to　Neptune。　In　the　Scythic　tongue　Vesta　is　called　Tabiti；　Jupiter　（very　properly；　in　my　judgment）　Papaeus；　Tellus　Apia；　Apollo　Oetosyrus；　Celestial　Venus　Artimpasa；　and　Neptune　Thamimasadas。　They　use　no　images；　altars；　or　temples；　except　in　the　worship　of　Mars；　but　in　his　worship　they　do　use　them。　　　　　The　manner　of　their　sacrifices　is　everywhere　and　in　every　case　the　same；　the　victim　stands　with　its　two　fore…feet　bound　together　by　a　cord；　and　the　person　who　is　about　to　offer；　taking　his　station　behind　the　victim；　gives　the　rope　a　pull；　and　thereby　throws　the　animal　down；　as　it　falls　he　invokes　the　god　to　whom　he　is　offering；　after　which　he　puts　a　noose　round　the　animal's　neck；　and；　inserting　a　small　stick；　twists　it　round；　and　so　strangles　him。　No　fire　is　lighted；　there　is　no　consecration；　and　no　pouring　out　of　drink…offerings；　but　directly　that　the　beast　is　strangled　the　sacrificer　flays　him；　and　then　sets　to　work　to　boil　the　flesh。　　　　　As　Scythia；　however；　is　utterly　barren　of　firewood；　a　plan　has　had　to　be　contrived　for　boiling　the　flesh；　which　is　the　following。　After　flaying　the　beasts；　they　take　out　all　the　bones；　and　（if　they　possess　such　gear）　put　the　flesh　into　boilers　made　in　the　country；　which　are　very　like　the　cauldrons　of　the　Lesbians；　except　that　they　are　of　a　much　larger　size；　then　placing　the　bones　of　the　animals　beneath　the　cauldron；　they　set　them　alight；　and　so　boil　the　meat。　If　they　do　not　happen　to　possess　a　cauldron；　they　make　the　animal's　paunch　hold　the　flesh；　and　pouring　in　at　the　same　time　a　little　water；　lay　the　bones　under　and　light　them。　The　bones　burn　beautifully；　and　the　paunch　easily　contains　all　the　flesh　when　it　is　stript　from　the　bones；　so　that　by　this　plan　your　ox　is　made　to　boil　himself；　and　other　victims　also　to　do　the　like。　When　the　meat　is　all　cooked；　the　sacrificer　offers　a　portion　of　the　flesh　and　of　the　entrails；　by　casting　it　on　the　ground　before　him。　They　sacrifice　all　sorts　of　cattle；　but　most　commonly　horses。　　　　　Such　are　the　victims　offered　to　the　other　gods；　and　such　is　the　mode　in　which　they　are　sacrificed；　but　the　rites　paid　to　Mars　are　different。　In　every　district；　at　the　seat　of　government；　there　stands　a　temple　of　this　god；　whereof　the　following　is　a　description。　It　is　a　pile　of　brushwood；　made　of　a　vast　quantity　of　fagots；　in　length　and　breadth　three　furlongs；　in　height　somewhat　less；　having　a　square　platform　upon　the　top；　three　sides　of　which　are　precipitous；　while　the　fourth　slopes　so　that　men　may　walk　up　it。　Each　year　a　hundred　and　fifty　waggon…loads　of　brushwood　are　added　to　the　pile；　which　sinks　continually　by　reason　of　the　rains。　An　antique　iron　sword　is　planted　on　the　top　of　every　such　mound；　and　serves　as　the　image　of　Mars：　yearly　sacrifices　of　cattle　and　of　horses　are　made　to　it；　and　more　victims　are　offered　thus　than　to　all　the　rest　of　their　gods。　When　prisoners　are　taken　in　war；　out　of　every　hundred　men　they　sacrifice　one；　not　however　with　the　same　rites　as　the　cattle；　but　with　different。　Libations　of　wine　are　first　poured　upon　their　heads；　after　which　they　are　slaughtered　over　a　vessel；　the　vessel　is　then　carried　up　to　the　top　of　the　pile；　and　the　blood　poured　upon　the　scymitar。　While　this　takes　place　at　the　top　of　the　mound；　below；　by　the　side　of　the　temple；　the　right　hands　and　arms　of　the　slaughtered　prisoners　are　cut　off；　and　tossed　on　high　into　the　air。　Then　the　other　victims　are　slain；　and　those　who　have　offered　the　sacrifice　depart；　leaving　the　hands　and　arms　where　they　may　chance　to　have　fallen；　and　the　bodies　also；　separate。　　　　　Such　are　the　observances　of　the　Scythians　with　respect　to　sacrifice。　They　never　use　swine　for　the　purpose；　nor　indeed　is　it　their　wont　to　breed　them　in　any　part　of　their　country。　　　　　In　what　concerns　war；　their　customs　are　the　following。　The　Scythian　soldier　drinks　the　blood　of　the　first　man　he　overthrows　in　battle。　Whatever　number　he　slays；　he　cuts　off　all　their　heads；　and　carries　them　to　the　king；　since　he　is　thus　entitled　to　a　share　of　the　booty；　whereto　he　forfeits　all　claim　if　he　does　not　produce　a　head。　In　order　to　strip　the　skull　of　its