the　country；　and　of　this　money　more　had　come　from　the　United　States　than　from　any　other　nation。　Nor　was　it　financial　aid　alone　which　had　gone　across　the　border。　There　was　but　little　American　colonization；　it　is　true；　but　business　managers；　engineers；　mine　foremen；　and　ranch　superintendents　formed　thousands　of　links　binding　the　nations　together。　The　climax　of　intimacy　seemed　reached　when；　in　1910；　a　general　treaty　of　arbitration　was　made　after　President　Taft　and　President　Diaz　had　met　at　El　Paso　on　the　Mexican　border　in　a　personal　conference。　A　personal　interview　between　the　President　of　the　United　States　and　the　chief　of　a　foreign　state　was　almost　unique　in　American　history；　owing　to　the　convention　that　the　President　should　not　depart　from　the　national　territory。
  It　was；　therefore；　with　a　bitter　sense　of　disappointment　that　Americans　heard　of　the　revolution　inaugurated　in　1910　by　Francisco　Madero。　In　common　with　France；　Spain；　Great　Britain；　and　Germany；　the　United　States　was　disturbed　for　the　safety　of　the　investments　and　persons　of　its　citizens。　The　Government　was　also　concerned　because　the　points　of　first　and　most　persistent　fighting　were　where　the　various　railroads　crossed　the　American　boundary。　This　circumstance　brought　the　whole　border　within　the　range　of　disturbance。　The　Government　was　apprehensive；　too；　as　to　the　effect　of　long…continued　war　upon　territories　within　the　circle　of　its　chief　interest；　the　Caribbean　area。　Yet；　when　the　first　surprise　caused　by　the　revolution　had　passed　and　the　reason　for　the　outbreak　was　perceived；the　fact　that　the　order　and　apparent　prosperity　of　the　Diaz　regime　had　been　founded　upon　the　oppression　and　exploitation　of　the　masses；public　sympathy　in　the　United　States　went　out　to　Madero　and　his　supporters。
  The　Diaz　Government　collapsed　with　surprising　suddenness。　The　resignation　of　President　Diaz　in　May；　1911；　was　accepted　as　a　proof　of　the　popular　character　and　the　success　of　the　revolution；　and　Madero；　who　was　elected　president　in　October；　was　promptly　recognized　as　the　constitutional　head　of　the　Mexican　Government。　The　revolution；　however；　aroused　the　United　States　to　the　fact　that　there　still　persisted　the　era　of　disturbance　which　it　had　hoped　was　drawing　to　a　close　in　Latin　America。　With　this　disturbing　revelation　in　mind；　Congress　took　another　step　in　the　development　of　American　policies　consequent　upon　the　Monroe　Doctrine　by　passing　an　act　authorizing　the　President；　whenever　he　should　〃find　that　in　any　American　country　conditions　of　domestic　violence　exist　which　are　promoted　by　the　use　of　arms　and　munitions　of　war　procured　from　the　United　States；〃　to　prohibit　trade　in　such　articles。　Under　this　authority；　President　Taft　promptly　forbade　the　export　of　such　articles　to　Mexico　except　to　the　Government。
  Real　revolutions；　however；　seldom　result　simply　in　the　transfer　of　authority　from　one　group　to　another。　The　breaking　of　the　bonds　of　recognized　authority　releases　all　sorts　of　desires；　represented　in　the　state　by　separate　groups；　each　of　which　sees　no　reason　for　accepting　the　control　of　another。　All　seek　to　seize　the　dropped　reins。　The　inauguration　of　Madero；　therefore；　did　not　result　in　a　new　and　popular　government　but　in　continued　disturbance。　Factions　with　differing　creeds　raised　revolts　in　various　sections　of　the　country　until；　in　February；　1913；　Madero　was　overthrown　by　one　of　these　groups；　led　by　Felix　Diaz　and　General　Victoriano　Huerta；　and　representing　a　reactionary　tendency。　Madero　and　his　vice　president　Pino　Suarez　were　killed；　it　was　believed　by　order　of　Huerta；　and　on　the　27th　of　February；　in　the　City　of　Mexico；　Huerta　was　proclaimed　President。　Don　Venustiano　Carranza；　Governor　of　the　State　of　Coahuila；　straightway　denied　the　constitutionality　of　the　new　Government　and　led　a　new　revolution　under　the　banner　of　the　Constitution。
  It　was　in　such　a　condition　that　President　Wilson　found　the　affairs　of　the　continent　when　he　took　office　on　March　4；　1913。　The　American　policy　in　the　Caribbean　was　well　defined　and　to　a　large　extent　in　operation。　Pan…American　sentiment　was　developing；　but　its　strength　and　direction　were　yet　to　be　determined。　Mexico　was　in　chaos；　and　upon　the　Government's　handling　of　it　would　depend　the　final　success　of　the　United　States　in　the　Caribbean　and　the　possibility　of　effecting　a　real　and　fruitful　cooperation　of　the　Americas。
  CHAPTER　XVII。　World　Relationships
  It　became　increasingly　evident　that　the　foreign　policy　of　the　United　States　could　not　consist　solely　of　a　Caribbean　policy；　a　Pan…American　policy；　and　a　Far　Eastern　policy；　but　that　it　must　necessarily　involve　a　world　policy。　During　the　years　after　the　Spanish　War　the　world　was　actively　discussing　peace；　but　all　the　while　war　was　in　the　air。　The　peace　devices　of　1815；　the　Holy　and　the　Quadruple　Alliances；　had　vanished。　The　world　had　ceased　to　regard　buffer　states　as　preventives　of　wars　between　the　great　nations；　although　at　the　time　few　believed　that　any　nation　would　ever　dare　to　treat　them　as　Germany　since　then　has　treated　Belgium。　The　balance　of　power　still　existed；　but　statesmen　were　ever　uncertain　as　to　whether　such　a　relation　of　states　was　really　conducive　to　peace　or　to　war。　A　concert　of　the　Great　Powers　resembling　the　Quadruple　Alliance　sought　to　regulate　such　vexing　problems　as　were　presented　by　the　Balkans　and　China；　but　their　concord　was　not　loud　enough　to　drown　the　notes　of　discord。
  The　outspoken　word　of　governments　was　still　all　for　peace；　their　proposals　for　preserving。　it　were　of　two　kinds。　First；　there　was　the　time…honored　argument　that　the　best　preservative　of　peace　was　preparation　for　war。　Foremost　in　the　avowed　policies　of　the　day；　this　was　urged　by　some　who　really　believed　it；　by　some　who　hoped　for　war　and　intended　to　be　ready　for　it；　and　by　the　cynical　who　did　not　wish　for　war　but　thought　it　inevitable。　The　other　proposal　was　that　war　could　and　should　be　prevented　by　agreements　to　submit　all　differences　between　nations　to　international　tribunals　for　judgment。　In　the　United　States；　which　had　always　rejected　the　idea　of　balance　of　power；　and　which　only　in　Asia；　and　to　a　limited　degree；　assented　to　the　concert　of　powers；　one　or　the　other　of　these　two　views　was　urged　by　all　those　who　saw　that　the　United　States　had　actually　become　a　world　power；　that　isolation　no　longer　existed；　and　that　a　policy　of　nonintervention　could　not　keep　us　permanently　detached　from　the　current　of　world　politics。
  The　foremost　advocates　of　preparedness　were　Theodore　Roosevelt　and　Admiral　Mahan。　It　was　little　enough　that　they　were　able　to　accomplish；　but　it　was　more　than　most　Americans　realize。　The　doubling　of　the　regular　army　which　the　Spanish　War　had　brought　about　was　maintained　but　was　less　important　than　its　improvement　in　organization。　Elihu　Root　and　William　H。　Taft；　as　Secretaries　of　War；　profiting　by　the　lessons　learned　in　Cuba；　established　a　general　staff；　provided　for　the　advanced　professional　training　of　officers；　and　became　sufficiently　acquainted　with　the　personnel　to　bring　into　positions　of　responsibility　those　who　deserved　to　hold　them。　The　navy　grew　with　less　resistance　on　the　part　of　the　public；　which　now　was　interested　in　observing　the　advance　in　the　rank　of　its　fleet　among　the　navies　of　the　world。　When　in　1907　Roosevelt　sent　the　American　battleship　squadron　on　a　voyage　around　the　world；　the　expedition　not　only　caused　a　pleased　self…consciousness　at　home　but　perhaps　impressed　foreign　nations　with　the　fact　that　the　United　States　now　counted　not　only　as　a　potential　but　as　an　actual　factor　in　world　affairs。
  Greater　popular　interest；　if　one　may　judge　from　relative　achievement；　was　aroused　by　the　proposal　to　substitute　legal　for　military　battles。　The　United　States　had　always　been　disposed　to　submit　to　arbitration　questions　which　seemed　deadlocked。　The　making　of　general　arrangements　for　the　arbitration　of　cases　that　might　arise　in　the　future　was　now　advocated。　The　first　important　proposal　of　this　character　was　made　to　the　United　States　by　Great　Britain　at　the　time　of　the　Venezuela　affair。　This　proposal　was　rejected；　for　it　was　regarded　as　a　device　of　Great　Britain　to　cover　her　retreat　in　that　particular　case　by　suggesting　a　general　provision。　The　next　suggestion　was　that　made　by　the　Czar；　in　1899；　for　a　peace　conference　at　The　Hague。　This　invitation　the　United　States　accepted　with　hearty　good　will　and　she　concurred　in　the　establishment　of　a　permanent　court　of　arbitration　to　meet　in　that　city。　Andrew　Carnegie　built　a　home　for　it；　and　President　Roosevelt　sent　to　it　as　its　first　case　that　of　the　〃Pious　Fund；〃　concerning　which　the　United　States　had　long　been　in　dispute　with　Mexico。
  The　establishment　of　a　world　court　promoted　the　formation　of　treaties　between　nations　by　which　they　agreed　to　submit　their　differences　to　The　Hague　or　to　similar　courts　especially　formed。　A　model；　or　as　it　was　called　a　〃mondial〃　treaty　was　drawn　up　by　the　conference　for　this　purpose。　Secretary　Hay　proceeded　to　draw　up　treaties　on　such　general　lines　with　a　number　of　nations；　and　President　Roosevelt　referred　them　to　the　Senate　with　his　warm　approval。　That　body；　however；　exceedingly　jealous　of　the　share　in　the　treaty…making　power　given　it　by　the　Constitution；　disliked　the　treaties；　because　it　feared　that　under　such　gene