between　1898　and　1917　will　doubtless　be　regarded　by　the　historian　a　hundred　years　from　now　as　a　time　of　transition　similar　to　that　between　1815　and　1829。　In　that　earlier　period　John　Marshall　and　John　Quincy　Adams　did　much　by　their　wisdom　and　judgment　to　preserve　what　was　of　value　in　the　old　regime　for　use　in　the　new。　In　the　later　period　John　Hay　performed；　though　far　less　completely；　a　somewhat　similar　function。
  John　Hay　had　an　acquaintance　with　the　best　traditions　of　American　statesmanship　which　falls　to　the　lot　of　few　men。　He　was　private　secretary　to　Lincoln　during　the　Civil　War；　he　had　as　his　most　intimate　friend　in　later　life　Henry　Adams；　the　historian；　who　lived　immersed　in　the　memories　and　traditions　of　a　family　which　has　taken　a　distinguished　part　in　the　Government　of　the　United　States　from　its　beginning。　Possessed　of　an　ample　fortune；　Hay　had　lived　much　abroad　and　in　the　society　of　the　men　who　governed　Europe。　He　was　experienced　in　newspaper　work　and　in　diplomacy；　and　he　came　to　be　Secretary　of　State　fresh　from　a　residence　in　England　where　as　Ambassador　he　had　enjoyed　wide　popularity。　With　a　lively　wit　and　an　engaging　charm　of　manner；　he　combined　a　knowledge　of　international　law　and　of　history　which　few　of　our　Secretaries　have　possessed。　Moreover　he　knew　men　and　how　to　handle　them。　Until　the　death　of　McKinley　in　1901　he　was　left　almost　free　in　the　administration　of　his　office。　He　once　said　that　the　President　spoke　to　him　of　his　office　scarcely　once　a　month。　In　the　years　from　1901　to　1905　he　worked　under　very　different　conditions；　for　President　Roosevelt　discussed　affairs　of　state　with　him　daily　and　took　some　matters　entirely　into　his　own　hands。
  Hay　found　somewhat　better　instruments　to　work　with　than　most　Americans　were　inclined　to　believe　probable。　It　is　true　that　the　American　diplomatic　service　abroad　has　not　always　reflected　credit　upon　the　country。　It　has　contained　extremely　able　and　distinguished　men　but　also　many　who　have　been　stupid；　ignorant；　and　ill…mannered。　The　State　Department　in　Washington；　however；　has　almost　escaped　the　vicissitudes　of　politics　and　has　been　graced　by　the　long　and　disinterested　service　of　competent　officials。　From　1897　to　1913；　moreover；　the　service　abroad　was　built　up　on　the　basis　of　continuity　and　promotion。
  One　sign　of　a　new　epoch　was　the　changed　attitude　of　the　American　public　toward　annexation。　While　the　war　was　in　progress　the　United　States　yielded　to　the　desires　of　Hawaii；　and　annexed　the　islands　as　a　part　of　the　United　States；　with　the　hope　of　their　eventual　statehood。　In　1899　the　United　States　consented　to　change　the　cumbrous　and　unsuccessful　arrangement　by　which；　in　partnership　with　Great　Britain　and　Germany；　it　had　supervised　the　native　government　of　Samoa。　No　longer　unwilling　to　acquire　distant　territories；　the　United　States　took　in　full　possession　the　island　of　Tutuila；　with　its　harbor　of　Pago　Pago；　and　consented　to　Germany's　taking　the　remainder　of　the　islands；　while　Great　Britain　received　compensation　elsewhere。　In　1900　the　Government　paid　over　to　Spain　100；000　for　Sibutu　and　Cagayan　Sulu；　two　islands　really　belonging　to　the　Philippines　but　overlooked　in　the　treaty。　Proud　of　the　navy　and　with　a　new　recognition　of　its　necessities；　the　United　States　sought　naval　stations　in　those　areas　where　the　fleet　might　have　to　operate。　In　the　Pacific　the　Government　obtained　Midway　and　Wake　islands　in　1900。　In　the　West　Indies；　the　harbor　of　Guantanamo　was　secured　from　Cuba；　and　in　1903　a　treaty　was　made　with　Denmark　for　the　purchase　of　her　islandswhich；　however；　finally　became　American　possessions　only　in　1917。
  By　her　policy　toward　Cuba；　the　United　States　gave　the　world　a　striking　example　of　observing　the　plighted　word　even　when　contrary　to　the　national　interest。　For　a　century　the　United　States　had　expected　to　acquire　the　〃Pearl　of　the　Antilles。〃　Spain　in　the　treaty　of　peace　refused　to　recognize　the　Cuban　Government　and　relinquished　the　island　into　the　hands　of　the　United　States。　The　withdrawal　of　the　Spanish　troops　left　the　Cuban　Government　utterly　unable　to　govern；　and　the　United　States　was　forced　to　occupy　the　island。　Nevertheless　the　Government　had　begun　the　war　with　a　recognition　of　Cuban　independence　and　to　that　declaration　it　adhered。　The　country　gave　the　best　of　its　talent　to　make　the　islands　self…governing　as　quickly　as　possible。　Harvard　University　invited　Cuban　teachers　to　be　its　guests　at　a　summer　session。　American　medical　men　labored　with　a　martyr's　devotion　to　stamp　out　disease。　General　Wood；　as　military　governor；　established　order　and　justice　and　presided　over　the　evolution　of　a　convention　assembled　to　draft　a　constitution　for　the　people　of　Cuba　and　to　determine　the　relations　of　the　United　States　and　Cuba。　These　relations；　indeed；　were　already　under　consideration　at　Washington　and　were　subsequently　embodied　in　the　Platt　Amendment。*　This　measure　directed　the　President　to　leave　the　control　of　Cuba　to　the　people　of　the　island　as　soon　as　they　should　agree　to　its　terms。　It　also　required　that　the　Government　of　Cuba　should　never　allow　a　foreign　power　to　impair　its　independence；　that　it　would　contract　no　debt　for　which　it　could　not　provide　a　sinking　fund　from　the　ordinary　revenue；　that　it　would　grant　to　the　United　States　〃lands　necessary　for　coaling　or　naval　stations〃；　that　it　would　provide　for　the　sanitation　of　its　cities；　and　that　the　United　States　should　have　the　right　to　intervene；　〃for　the　preservation　of　Cuban　independence；　the　maintenance　of　a　government　adequate　for　the　protection　of　life；　property；　and　individual　liberty；　and　for　discharging〃　certain　obligations　with　respect　to　Spanish　subjects　which　the　United　States　had　assumed　in　the　treaty　signed　at　Paris。　After　some　hesitation　the　convention　added　these　provisions　to　the　new　constitution　of　Cuba。　On　May　20；　1902；　the　American　troops　withdrew；　leaving　Cuba　in　better　condition　than　she　had　ever　been　before。　Subsequently　the　United　States　was　forced　to　intervene　to　preserve　order；　but；　though　the　temptation　was　strong　to　remain；　the　American　troops　again　withdrew　after　they　had　done　their　constructive　work。　The　voluntary　entrance　of　Cuba　into　the　Great　War　in　cooperation　with　the　United　States　was　a　tribute　to　the　generosity　and　honesty　of　the　American　people。
  *　An　amendment　to　the　Army　Appropriation　Bill　of　March　2；　1901。
  Porto　Rico　presented　a　problem　different　from　that　which　the　United　States　had　to　solve　in　Cuba。　There　existed　no　native　organization　which　could　supply　even　the　basis　for　the　formation　of　a　government。　The　people　seemed；　indeed；　to　have　no　desire　for　independence；　and　public　sentiment　in　the　United　States　generally　favored　the　permanent　possession　of　the　island。　After　a　period　of　rule　entirely　at　the　discretion　of　the　President；　Congress　established　in　1900　a　form　of　government　based　on　that　of　the　American　territories。　Porto　Rico　remained；　however；　unincorporated　into　the　Union；　and　it　was　long　doubtful　whether　it　would　remain　a　dependency　or　would　ultimately　attain　statehood。　In　1917；　however；　the　degree　of　self…government　was　increased；　and　the　inhabitants　were　made　American　citizens。　It　now　seems　probable　that　the　island　will　ultimately　become　a　State　of　the　Union。
  Meanwhile　on　the　other　side　of　the　world　the　United　States　had　a　more　unpleasant　task。　The　revolted　Filipinos；　unlike　the　Cubans；　had　not　declared　themselves　for　independence　but　for　redress　of　grievances。　The　United　States　had　assisted　Aguinaldo；　at　the　moment　in　exile；　to　return　to　the　islands　after　the　Battle　of　Manila　Bay　but　had　not　officially　recognized　him　as　having　authority。　When　he　saw　Spanish　power　disappearing　under　American　blows；　he　declared　himself　in　favor　of　the　abolition　of　all　foreign　rule。　This　declaration；　of　course；　in　no　way　bound　the　United　States；　to　whom　the　treaty　with　Spain；　the　only　recognized　sovereign；　ceded　the　island　absolutely。　There　was　no　flaw　in　the　title　of　the　United　States；　and　there　were　no　obligations；　save　those　of　humanity；　to　bind　the　Americans　in　their　treatment　of　the　natives。　Nevertheless；　the　great　majority　of　Americans　would　doubtless　have　gladly　favored　a　policy　similar　to　that　pursued　in　the　case　of　Cuba；　had　it　seemed　in　any　way　practicable。　Unfortunately；　however；　the　Filipinos　did　not　constitute　a　nation　but　only　a　congeries　of　peoples　and　tribes　of　differing　race　and　origin；　whom　nearly　four　centuries　of　Spanish　rule　had　not　been　able　to　make　live　at　peace　with　one　another。　Some　were　Christians；　some　Mohammedans；　some　heathen　savages；　some　wore　European　clothes；　some　none　at　all。　The　particular　tribe　which　formed　the　chief　support　of　Aguinaldo；　the　Tagalogs；　comprised　less　than　one　half　of　the　population　of　the　island　of　Luzon。　The　United　States　had　taken　the　islands　largely　because　it　did　not　see　any　one　else　to　whom　it　could　properly　shift　the　burden。　The　shoulders　of　the　Tagalogs　did　not　seem　broad　enough　for　the　responsibility。
  The　United　States　prepared；　therefore；　to　carry　on　the　task　which　it　had　assumed；　while　Aguinaldo；　with　his　army　circling　Manila；　prepared　to　dispute　its　title。　On　February　4；　1899；　actual　hostilities　broke　out。　By　this　time　Aguinaldo　had　a　capital　at　Malolos；　thirty　miles　north　of　Manila；　a　government；　thirty　or　forty　thousand　troops；　and