and　Congress　authorized　the　President　to　exercise　temporary　authority　over　islands　from　which　American　citizens　were　removing　guano　and　to　prevent　foreign　encroachment　while　they　were　so　engaged。　In　the　eighties；　fifty　such　islands　of　the　Pacific　were　in　the　possession　of　the　United　States。
  In　1872　an　American　naval　officer　made　an　agreement　with　the　local　chieftain　of　Tutuila；　one　of　the　Samoan　Islands；　for　the　use　of　Pago　Pago；　which　was　the　best　harbor　in　that　part　of　the　ocean。　The　United　States　drifted　into　more　intimate　relationship　with　the　natives　until　in　1878　it　made　a　treaty　with　the　Samoan　king　allowing　Americans　to　use　Pago　Pago　as　a　coaling　station。　In　return　the　United　States　agreed：　〃If　unhappily；　any　differences　should　have　arisen；　or　shall　hereafter　arise；　between　the　Samoan　government　and　any　other　government　in　amity　with　the　United　States；　the　government　of　the　latter　will　employ　its　good　offices　for　the　purpose　of　adjusting　those　differences　upon　a　satisfactory　and　solid　foundation。〃　In　1884　the　Senate　insisted　on　securing　a　similar　harbor　concession　from　Hawaii；　and　within　the　next　few　years　the　American　Navy　began　to　arise　again　from　its　ashes。　The　obligation　incurred　in　exchange　for　this　concession；　however；　although　it　resembled　that　in　the　Japanese　treaty；　was　probably　an　unreflecting　act　of　good　nature　for；　if　it　meant　anything；　it　was　an　entangling　engagement　such　as　the　vast　majority　of　Americans　were　still　determined　to　avoid。
  The　natives　of　Samoa　did　not　indulge　in　cannibalism　but　devoted　the　small　energy　the　climate　gave　them　to　the　social　graces　and　to　pleasant　wars。　They　were　governed　by　local　kings　and　were　loosely　united　under　a　chief　king。　At　Apia；　the　capital；　were　three　hundred　foreigners；　nearly　all　connected　in　one　way　or　another　with　trade。　This　commerce　had　long　been　in　the　hands　of　English　and　Americans；　but　now　the　aggressive　Germans　were　rapidly　winning　it　away。　Three　consuls；　representing　the　United　States；　Great　Britain；　and　Germany；　spent　their　time　in　exaggerating　their　functions　and　in　circumventing　the　plots　of　which　they　suspected　each　other。　The　stage　was　set　for　comic　opera；　the　treaty　with　the　United　States　was　part　of　the　plot；　and　several　acts　had　already　been　played；　when　Bismarck　suddenly　injected　a　tragic　element。
  In　1884；　at　the　time　when　the　German　statesman　began　to　see　the　vision　of　a　Teutonic　world　empire　and　went　about　seeking　places　in　the　sun；　the　German　consul　in　Samoa；　by　agreement　with　King　Malietoa；　raised　the　German　flag　over　the　royal　hut；　with　a　significance　which　was　all　too　obvious。　In　1886　the　American　consul　countered　this　move　by　proclaiming　a　United　States　protectorate。　The　German　consul　then　first　pressed　home　a　quarrel　with　the　native　king　at　a　time　opportunely　coinciding　with　the　arrival　of　a　German　warship；　the　Adler；　he　subsequently　deposed　him　and　put　up　Tamasese　in　his　stead。　The　apparently　more　legitimate　successor；　Mataafa；　roused　most　of　the　population　under　his　leadership。　The　Adler　steamed　about　the　islands　shelling　Mataafa　villages；　and　the　American　consul　steamed　after　him；　putting　his　launch　between　the　Adler　and　the　shore。　In　the　course　of　these　events；　on　December　18；　1888；　Mataafa　ambushed　a　German　landing　party　and　killed　fifty　of　its　members。
  German　public　opinion　thereupon　vociferously　demanded　a　punishment　which　would　establish　the　place　of　Germany　as　a　colonial　power　in　the　Pacific。　Great　Britain；　however；　was　not　disposed　to　give　her　growing　rival　a　free　hand。　The　United　States　was　appealed　to　under　the　Treaty　of　1878；　and　American　sentiment　determined　to　protect　the　Samoans　in　their　heroic　fight　for　self…government。　All　three　nations　involved　sent　warships　to　Apia；　and　through　the　early　spring　of　1889　their　chancelleries　and　the　press　were　prepared　to　hear　momentarily　that　some　one's　temper　had　given　way　in　the　tropic　heat　and　that　blood　had　been　shedwith　what　consequences　on　the　other　side　of　the　globe　no　man　could　tell。
  Very　different；　however；　was　the　news　that　finally　limped　in；　for　there　was　no　cable。　On　March　16；　1889；　a　hurricane　had　swept　the　islands；　wrecking　all　but　one　of　the　warships。　The　common　distress　had　brought　about　cooperation　among　all　parties。　Tales　of　mutual　help　and　mutual　praise　of　natives　and　the　three　nations　filled　the　dispatches。　The　play　turned　out　to　be　a　comedy　after　all。　Yet　difficulties　remained　which　could　be　met　only　by　joint　action。　A　commission　of　the　three　nations　therefore　was　arranged　to　meet　in　Berlin。　The　United　States　insisted　on　native　government；　Germany；　on　foreign　control。　Finally　they　agreed　to　a　compromise　in　the　form　of　a　General　Act；　to　which　Samoa　consented。　The　native　government　was　retained；　but　the　control　was　given　to　a　Chief　Justice　and　a　President　of　the　Municipal　Council　of　Apia；　who　were　to　be　foreigners　chosen　by　the　three　powers。　Their　relative　authority　is　indicated　by　the　fact　that　the　king　was　to　receive　1800　a　year；　the　Chief　Justice；　6000；　and　the　President；　5000。
  Small　as　was　the　immediate　stake；　this　little　episode　was　remarkably　significant　of　the　trend　of　American　development。　Begun　under　Grant　and　concluded　under　Blaine　and　Harrison；　the　policy　of　the　United　States　was　the　creation　of　no　one　mind　or　party　nor　did　it　accord　with　American　traditions。　Encountering　European　powers　in　the　Pacific；　with　no　apparent　hesitation　though　without　any　general　intent；　the　United　States　entered　into　cooperative　agreements　with　them　relating　to　the　native　governments　which　it　would　never　have　thought　proper　or　possible　in　other　parts　of　the　world。　The　United　States　seemed　to　be　evolving　a　new　policy　for　the　protection　of　its　interests　in　the　Pacific。　This　first　clash　with　the　rising　colonial　power　of　Germany　has　an　added　interest　because　it　revealed　a　fundamental　similarity　in　colonial　policy　between　the　United　States　and　Great　Britain；　even　though　they　were　prone　to　quarrel　when　adjusting　Anglo…American　relations。
  While　the　Samoan　affair　seemed　an　accidental　happening；　there　was　taking　shape　in　the　Pacific　another　episode　which　had　a　longer　history　and　was　more　significant　of　the　expansion　of　American　interests　in　that　ocean。　Indeed；　with　the　Pacific　coast　line　of　the　United　States；　with　the　superb　harbors　of　San　Francisco；　Portland；　and　Puget　Sound；　and　with　Alaska　stretching　its　finger　tips　almost　to　Asia；　even　Blaine　could　not　resist　the　lure　of　the　East；　though　he　endeavored　to　reconcile　American　traditions　of　isolation　with　oceanic　expansion。　Of　all　the　Pacific　archipelagoes；　the　Hawaiian　Islands　lie　nearest　to　the　shores　of　the　United　States。　Although　they　had　been　discovered　to　the　European　world　by　the　great　English　explorer；　Captain　Cook；　their　intercourse　had；　for　geographic　reasons；　always　been　chiefly　with　the　United　States。　Whalers　continually　resorted　to　them　for　supplies。　Their　natives　shipped　on　American　vessels　and　came　in　numbers　to　California　in　early　gold…mining　days。　American　missionaries　attained　their　most　striking　success　in　the　Hawaiian　Islands　and　not　only　converted　the　majority　of　the　natives　but　assisted　the　successive　kings　in　their　government。　The　descendants　of　these　missionaries　continued　to　live　on　the　islands　and　became　the　nucleus　of　a　white　population　which　waxed　rich　and　powerful　by　the　abundant　production　of　sugar　cane　on　that　volcanic　soil。
  In　view　of　this　tangible　evidence　of　intimacy　on　the　part　of　the　United　States　with　the　Hawaiian　Islands；　Webster　in　1842　brought　them　within　the　scope　of　the　Monroe　Doctrine　by　declaring　that　European　powers　must　not　interfere　with　their　government。　Marcy；　Secretary　of　State；　framed　a　treaty　of　annexation　in　1853；　but　the　Hawaiian　Government　withdrew　its　assent。　Twenty　years　later　Secretary　Fish　wrote：　〃There　seems　to　be　a　strong　desire　on　the　part　of　many　persons　in　the　islands；　representing　large　interests　and　great　wealth；　to　become　annexed　to　the　United　States　and　while　there　are；　as　I　have　already　said；　many　and　influential　persons　in　the　country　who　question　the　policy　of　any　insular　acquisition；　perhaps　even　any　extension　of　territorial　limits；　there　are　also　those　of　influence　and　wise　foresight　who　see　a　future　that　must　extend　the　jurisdiction　and　the　limits　of　this　nation；　and　that　will　require　a　resting　spot　in　the　mid…ocean；　between　the　Pacific　coast　and　the　vast　domains　of　Asia；　which　are　now　opening　to　commerce；　and　Christian　civilization。〃
  All　immediate　action；　however；　was　confined　to　a　specially　intimate　treaty　of　reciprocity　which　was　signed　in　1875；　and　which　secured　a　substantial　American　domination　in　commerce。　When　Blaine　became　Secretary　of　State　in　1881；　he　was；　or　at　least　he　affected　to　be；　seriously　alarmed　at　the　possibility　of　foreign　influence　in　Hawaiian　affairs；　particularly　on　the　part　of　Great　Britain。　The　native　population　was　declining；　and　should　it　continue　to　diminish；　he　believed　that　the　United　States　must　annex　the　islands。　〃Throughout　the　continent；　north　and　south；〃　he　wrote；　〃wherever　a　foothold　is　found　for　American　enterprise；　it　is　quickly　occupied；　and　the　spirit　of　adventure；　which　seeks　its　outlet；　in　the　mines　of　South　America　and　the　railroads　of　Mexico；　would　not　be　slow　to　avail　itself　of　openings　of　assured　and　pro