toes；　to　acknowledge　the　supremacy　of　Honduras　over　the　Bay　Islands；　and　to　accept　a　reasonable　interpretation　of　the　Belize　boundary。　Though　this　convention　was　never　ratified；　Great　Britain　carried　out　its　terms；　and　in　1860　Buchanan　announced　himself　satisfied。
  The　dreams　of　1850；　however；　were　not　satisfied。　A　railroad　was　completed　across　Panama　in　1855；　but　no　canal　was　constructed　until　years　after　the　great　transcontinental　railroads　had　bound　California　to　the　East　by　bonds　which　required　no　foreign　sanction。　Yet　the　Clayton…Bulwer　Treaty　remained　an　entangling　alliance；　destined　to　give　lovers　of　peace　and　amity　many　more　uncomfortable　hours。
  During　the　Civil　War　other　causes　of　irritation　arose　between　the　United　States　and　Great　Britain。　The　proclamation　of　neutrality；　by　which　the　British　Government　recognized　the　Confederacy　as　a　belligerent；　seemed　to　the　North　an　unfriendly　act。　Early　in　the　war　occurred　the　Trent　affair；　which　added　to　the　growing　resentment。*　It　was　held　to　be　a　violation　of　professed　neutrality　that　Confederate　commerce　destroyers　were　permitted　to　be　built　and　fitted　out　in　British　yards。　The　subsequent　transfer　of　hundreds　of　thousands　of　tons　of　American　shipping　to　British　registry；　owing　to　the　depredations　of　these　raiders；　still　further　incensed　the　American　people。　It　was　in　the　midst　of　these　strained　relations　that　the　Fenian　Brotherhood　in　the　United　States　attempted　the　invasion　of　Canada。
  *　See　Stephenson；　〃Abraham　Lincoln　and　the　Union；〃　in　〃The　Chronicles　of　America。〃
  America　laid　claims　against　Great　Britain；　based　not　merely　on　the　actual　destruction　of　merchantmen　by　the　Alabama；　the　Florida；　and　other　Confederate　vessels　built　in　British　yards；　but　also　on　such　indirect　losses　as　insurance；　cost　of　pursuit；　and　commercial　profits。　The　American　Minister；　Charles　Francis　Adams；　had　proposed　the　arbitration　of　these　claims；　but　the　British　Ministry；　declined　to　arbitrate　matters　involving　the　honor　of　the　country。　Adams's　successor；　Reverdy　Johnson；　succeeded　in　arranging　a　convention　in　1868　excluding　from　consideration　all　claims　for　indirect　damages；　but　this　arrangement　was　unfavorably　reported　from　the　Committee　on　Foreign　Affairs　in　the　Senate。　It　was　then　that　Charles　Sumner；　Chairman　of　the　Committee；　gave　utterance　to　his　astounding　demands　upon　Great　Britain。　The　direct　claims　of　the　United　States；　he　contended；　were　no　adequate　compensation　for　its　losses；　the　indirect　claims　must　also　be　made　good；　particularly　those　based　on　the　loss　of　the　American　merchant　marine　by　transfer　to　the　British　flag。　The　direct　or　〃individual〃　American　losses　amounted　to　15；000；000。　〃But　this　leaves　without　recognition　the　vaster　damage　to　commerce　driven　from　the　ocean；　and　that　other　damage；　immense　and　infinite；　caused　by　the　prolongation　of　the　war；　all　of　which　may　be　called　NATIONAL　in　contradistinction　to　INDIVIDUAL。〃　Losses　to　commerce　he　reckoned　at　110；000；000；　adding　that　this　amount　must　be　considered　only　an　item　in　the　bill；　for　the　prolongation　of　the　war　was　directly　traceable　to　England。　〃The　rebellion　was　suppressed　at　a　cost　of　more　than　four　thousand　million　dollars。。。through　British　intervention　the　war　was　doubled　in　duration；　。。。England　is　justly　responsible　for　the　additional　expenditure。〃　Sumner's　total　bill　against　Great　Britain；　then；　amounted　to　over　2；000；000；000；　〃everyone；〃　said　he；　〃can　make　the　calculation。〃
  Had　an　irresponsible　member　of　Congress　made　these　demands；　they　might　have　been　dismissed　as　another　effort　to　twist　the　British　lion's　tail；　but　Charles　Sumner　took　himself　seriously；　expected　others　to　take　him　seriously；　and　unhappily　was　taken　seriously　by　a　great　number　of　his　fellow　countrymen。　The　explanation　of　his　preposterous　demand　appeared　subsequently　in　a　memorandum　which　he　prepared。　To　avoid　all　possible　future　clashes　with　Great　Britain；　he　would　have　her　withdraw　from　the　American　continents　and　the　Western　Hemisphere。　Great　Britain　might　discharge　her　financial　obligations　by　transferring　to　the　United　States　the　whole　of　British　America！　And　Sumner　seems　actually　to　have　believed　that　he　was　promoting　the　cause　of　international　good　will　by　this　tactless　proposal。
  For　a　time　it　was　believed　that　Sumner　spoke　for　the　Administration；　and　public　opinion　in　the　United　States　was　disposed　to　look　upon　his　speech　as　a　fair　statement　of　American　grievances　and　a　just　demand　for　compensation。　The　British　Government；　too；　in　view　of　the　action　of　the　Senate　and　the　indiscreet　utterances　of　the　new　American　Minister　in　London；　John　Lothrop　Motley；　believed　that　President　Grant　favored　an　aggressive　policy。　Further　negotiations　were　dropped。　Both　Governments；　nevertheless；　were　desirous　of　coming　to　an　understanding；　though　neither　wished　to　take　the　first　step。
  Fortunately　it　happened　that　Caleb　Cushing　for　the　United　States　and　John　Rose　for　Canada　were　then　engaged　at　Washington　in　the　discussion　of　some　matters　affecting　the　two　countries。　In　the　course　of　informal　conversations　these　accomplished　diplomats　planned　for　a　rapprochement。　Rose　presented　a　memorandum　suggesting　that　all　questions　in　dispute　be　made　the　subject　of　a　general　negotiation　and　treaty。　It　was　at　this　moment　that　Sumner　came　forward　with　his　plan　of　compensation　and　obviously　he　stood　in　the　way　of　any　settlement。　President　Grant；　however；　already　incensed　by　Motley's　conduct　and　by　Sumner's　opposition　to　his　own　favorite　project；　the　annexation　of　Santo　Domingo；　now　broke　definitely　with　both　by　removing　Motley　and　securing　Sumner's　deposition　from　the　chairmanship　of　the　Committee　on　Foreign　Affairs。　The　way　was　now　prepared　for　an　agreement　with　Great　Britain。
  On　February　27；　1871；　a　Joint　High　Commission；　composed　of　five　distinguished　representatives　from　each　Government；　began　its　memorable　session　at　Washington。　The　outcome　was　the　Treaty　of　Washington；　signed　on　May　8；　1871。　The　most　important　questionthe　〃Alabama　Claims〃was　by　this　agreement　to　be　submitted　to　a　tribunal　of　five　arbitrators；　one　to　be　selected　by　the　President　of　the　United　States；　another　by　the　Queen　of　Great　Britain；　a　third　by　the　King　of　Italy；　a　fourth　by　the　President　of　the　Swiss　Republic；　and　a　fifth　by　the　Emperor　of　Brazil。　This　tribunal　was　to　meet　at　Geneva　and　was　to　base　its　award　on　three　rules　for　the　conduct　of　neutral　nations：　〃First；　to　use　due　diligence　to　prevent　the　fitting　out；　。。。within　its　jurisdiction；　of　any　vessel　which　it　has　reasonable　ground　to　believe　is　intended　to　cruise。。。against　a　Power　with　which　it　is　at　peace。。。；　secondly；　not　to　permit。。。either　belligerent　to　make　use　of　its　ports　or　waters　as　a　base　of　naval　operations。。。；　thirdly；　to　exercise　due　diligence　in　its　own　ports　and　waters。。。to　prevent　any　violation　of　the　foregoing　obligations　and　duties。〃
  Another　but　less　elaborate　tribunal　was　to　decide　all　other　claims　which　had　arisen　out　of　the　Civil　War。　Still　another　arbitration　commission　was　to　assess　the　amount　which　the　United　States　was　to　pay　by　way　of　compensation　for　certain　privileges　connected　with　the　fisheries。　The　vexed　question　of　the　possession　of　the　San　Juan　Islands　was　to　be　left　to　the　decision　of　the　Emperor　of　Germany。　A　series　of　articles　provided　for　the　amicable　settlement　of　border　questions　between　the　United　States　and　Canada。　Never　before　in　history　had　such　important　controversies　been　submitted　voluntarily　to　arbitration　and　judicial　settlement。
  The　tribunal　which　met　at　Geneva　in　December　was　a　body　of　distinguished　men　who　proved　fully　equal　to　the　gravity　of　their　task。　Charles　Francis　Adams　was　appointed　to　represent　the　United　States；　Sir　Alexander　Cockburn；　to　represent　Great　Britain；　the　commissioners　from　neutral　States　were　also　men　of　distinction。　J。　C。　Bancroft　Davis　was　agent　for　the　United　States；　and　William　M。　Evarts；　Caleb　Cushing；　and　Morrison　R。　Waite　acted　as　counsel。　The　case　for　the　United　States　was　not　presented　in　a　manner　worthy　of　the　occasion。　According　to　Adams　the　American　contentions　〃were　advanced　with　an　aggressiveness　of　tone　and　attorneylike　smartness；　more　appropriate　to　the　wranglings　of　a　quarter…sessions　court　than　to　pleadings　before　a　grave　international　tribunal。〃　The　American　counsel　were　instructed　to　insist　not；　indeed；　on　indemnity　for　the　cost　of　two　years　of　war；　but　on　compensation　because　of　the　transfer　of　our　commerce　to　the　British　merchant　marine；　by　virtue　of　the　clause　of　the　treaty　which　read　〃acts　committed　by　the　several　vessels　which　have　given　rise　to　the　claims　generally　known　as　the　'Alabama　Claims。'〃　British　public　opinion　considered　this　contention　an　act　of　bad　faith。　Excitement　in　England　rose　to　a　high　pitch　and　the　Gladstone　Ministry　proposed　to　withdraw　from　the　arbitration。
  That　the　tribunal　of　arbitration　did　not　end　in　utter　failure　was　due　to　the　wisdom　and　courage　of　Adams。　At　his　suggestion　the　five　arbitrators　announced　on　June　19；　1872；　that　they　would　not　consider　claims　for　indirect　damages；　because　such　claims　did　〃not　constitute；　upon　the　principles　of　international　law　applicable　to　such　cases；　good　foundation　for　an　award　of　compensation；　or　computations　of　damages　between　nations。〃　These　claims　dismisse