er　Washington　without　a　neckcloth。　His　early　morning　swim　in　the　Potomac　and　his　translations　of　Horace　did　not　conquer　a　temper　which　embittered　many　who　had　business　with　him；　while　the　nightly　records　which　he　made　of　his　interviews　show　that　he　was　generally　suspicious　of　his　visitors。　Yet　no　American　can　show　so　long　a　roll　of　diplomatic　successes。　Preeminently　he　knew　his　business。　His　intense　devotion　and　his　native　talent　had　made　him　a　master　of　the　theory　and　practice　of　international　law　and　of　statecraft。　Always　he　was　obviously　honest；　and　his　word　was　relied　on。　Fundamentally　he　was　kind；　and　his　work　was　permeated　by　a　generous　enthusiasm。　Probably　no　man　in　America；　had　so　intense　a　conviction　not　only　of　the　correctness　of　American　principles　and　the　promise　of　American　greatness　but　of　the　immediate　strength　and　greatness　of　the　United　States　as　it　stood　in　1823。
  Fully　aware　as　Adams　was　of　the　danger　that　threatened　both　America　and　liberty；　he　was　not　in　favor　of　accepting　Canning's　proposal　for　the　cooperation　of　England　and　the　United　States。　He　based　his　opposition　upon　two　fundamental　objections。　In　the　first　place　he　was　not　prepared　to　say　that　the　United　States　desired　no　more　Spanish　territory。　Not　that　Adams　desired　or　would　tolerate　conquest。　At　the　time　of　the　Louisiana　Purchase　he　had　wished　to　postpone　annexation　until　the　assent　of　the　people　of　that　province　could　be　obtained。　But　he　believed　that　all　the　territory　necessary　for　the　geographical　completeness　of　the　United　States　had　not　yet　been　brought　under　the　flag。　He　had　just　obtained　Florida　from　Spain　and　a　claim　westward　to　the　Pacific　north　of　the　forty…second　parallel；　but　he　considered　the　SouthwestTexas；　New　Mexico；　and　Californiaa　natural　field　of　expansion。　These　areas；　then　almost　barren　of　white　settlers；　he　expected　time　to　bring　into　the　United　States；　and　he　also　expected　that　the　people　of　Cuba　would　ultimately　rejoice　to　become　incorporated　in　the　Union。　He　wished　natural　forces　to　work　out　their　own　results；　without　let　or　hindrance。
  Not　only　was　Adams　opposed　to　Canning's　proposed　self…denying　ordinance；　but　he　was　equally　averse　to　becoming　a　partner　with　England。　Such　cooperation　might　well　prove　in　time　to　be　an　〃entangling　alliance；〃　involving　the　United　States　in　problems　of　no　immediate　concern　to　its　people　and　certainly　in　a　partnership　in　which　the　other　member　would　be　dominant。　If　Canning　saw　liberal　England　as　a　perpetual　minority　in　absolutist　Europe；　Adams　saw　republican　America　as　a　perpetual　inferior　to　monarchical　England。　Although　England；　with　Canada；　the　West　Indies；　and　her　commerce；　was　a　great　American　power；　Adams　believed　that　the　United　States；　the　oldest　independent　nation　in　America；　with　a　government　which　gave　the　model　to　the　rest；　could　not　admit　her　to　joint；　leadership；　for　her　power　was　in；　not　of；　America；　and　her　government　was　monarchical。　Already　Adams　had　won　a　strategic　advantage　over　Canning；　for　in　the　previous　year；　1822；　the　United　States　had　recognized　the　new　South　American　republics。
  Great　as　were　the　dangers　involved　in　cooperation　with　England；　however；　they　seemed　to　many　persons　of　little　moment　compared　with　the　menace　of　absolutist　armies　and　navies　in　the　New　World　or　of；　perhaps；　a　French　Cuba　and　a　Russian　Mexico。　The　only　effective　obstacle　to　such　foreign　intervention　was　the　British　Navy。　Both　President　Monroe　and　Thomas　Jefferson；　who　in　his　retirement　was　still　consulted　on　all　matters　of　high　moment；　therefore　favored　the　acceptance　of　Canning's　proposal　as　a　means　of　detaching　England　from　the　rest　of　Europe。　Adams　argued；　however；　that　England　was　already　detached；　that；　for　England's　purposes；　the　British　Navy　would　still　stand　between　Europe　and　America；　whatever　the　attitude　of　the　United　States；　that　compromise　or　concession　was　unnecessary；　and　that　the　country　could　as　safely　take　its　stand　toward　the　whole　outside　world　as　toward　continental　Europe　alone。　To　reject　the　offer　of　a　country　whose　assistance　was　absolutely　necessary　to　the　safety　of　the　United　States；　and　to　declare　the　American　case　against　her　as　well　as　against　the　more　menacing　forces　whose　attack　she　alone　could　prevent；　required　a　nerve　and　poise　which　could　come　only　from　ignorant　foolhardiness　or　from　absolute　knowledge　of　the　facts。　The　self…assurance　of　Adams　was　well　founded；　and　no　general　on　the　field　of　battle　ever　exhibited　higher　courage。
  Adams　won　over　the　Cabinet；　and　the　President　decided　to　incorporate　in　his　annual　message　to　Congress　a　declaration　setting　forth　the　attitude　of　the　United　States　toward　all　the　world；　and　in　particular　denying　the　right　of　any　European　power；　England　included；　to　intervene　in　American　affairs。　In　making　such　a　statement；　however；　it　was　necessary　to　offer　compensation　in　some　form。　The　United　States　was　not　prepared　to　offer　Canning's　self…denying　ordinance　barring　the　way　to　further　American　expansion；　but　something　it　must　offer。　This　compensating　offset　Adams　found　in　the　separation　of　the　New　World　from　the　Old　and　in　abstention　from　interference　in　Europe。　Such　a　renunciation　involved；　however；　the　sacrifice　of　generous　American　sympathies　with　the　republicans　across　the　seas。　Monroe；　Gallatin；　and　many　other　statesmen　wished　as　active　a　policy　in　support　of　the　Greeks　as　of　the　Spanish　Americans。　Adams　insisted；　however；　that　the　United　States　should　create　a　sphere　for　its　interests　and　should　confine　itself　to　that　sphere。　His　plan　for　peace　provided　that　European　and　American　interests　should　not　only　not　clash　but　should　not　even　meet。
  The　President's　message　of　December　2；　1823；　amounted　to　a　rejection　of　the　Holy　Alliance　as　guardian　of　the　world's　peace；　of　Canning's　request　for　an　entente；　and　of　the　proposal　that　the　United　States　enter　upon　a　campaign　to　republicanize　the　world。　It　stated　the　intention　of　the　Government　to　refrain　from　interference　in　Europe；　and　its　belief　that　it　was　〃impossible　that　the　allied　powers　should　extend　their　political　system　to　any　portion　of　either　continent　＇of　America＇　without　endangering　our　peace　and　happiness。〃　The　message　contained　a　strong　defense　of　the　republican　system　of　government　and　of　the　right　of　nations　to　control　their　own　internal　development。　It　completed　the　foreign　policy　of　the　United　States　by　declaring；　in　connection　with　certain　recent　encroachments　of　Russia　along　the　northwest　coast；　that　the　era　of　colonization　in　the　Americas　was　over。　The　United　States　was　to　maintain　in　the　future　that　boundaries　between　nations　holding　land　in　America　actually　existed　and　could　be　traceda　position　which　invited　arbitration　in　place　of　force。
  Both　Canning　and　Adams　won　victories；　but　neither　realized　his　full　hopes。　Canning　prevented　the　interference　of　Europe　in　Spanish　America；　broke　up　the　Quadruple　Alliance；　rendered　the　Holy　Alliance　a　shadow；　and　restored　a　balance　of　power　that　meant　safety　for　England　for　almost　a　hundred　years；　but　he　failed　to　dictate　American　policy。　Adams　on　his　part　detached　the　United　States　from　European　politics　without　throwing　England　into　the　arms　of　Europe。　He　took　advantage　of　the　divisions　of　the　Old　World　to　establish　the　priority　of　the　United　States　in　American　affairs；　but　he　failed　in　his　later　attempt　to　unite　all　the　Americas　in　cordial　cooperation。　Earnest　as　was　his　desire　and　hard　as　he　strove　in　1825　when　he　had　become　President　with　Clay　as　his　Secretary　of　State；　Adams　found　that　the　differences　in　point　of　view　between　the　United　States　and　the　other　American　powers　were　too　great　to　permit　a　Pan…American　policy。　The　Panama　Congress　on　which　he　built　his　hopes　failed；　and　for　fifty　years　the　project　lay　dormant。
  Under　the　popular　name　of　the　Monroe　Doctrine；　however；　Adams's　policy　has　played　a　much　larger　part　in　world　affairs　than　he　expected。　Without　the　force　of　law　either　in　this　country　or　between　nations；　this　doctrine　took　a　firm　hold　of　the　American　imagination　and　became　a　national　ideal；　while　other　nations　have　at　least　in　form　taken　cognizance　of　it。　The　Monroe　Doctrine　has　survived　because　Adams　did　not　invent　its　main　tenets　but　found　them　the　dominating　principles　of　American　international　politics；　his　work；　like　that　of　his　contemporary　John　Marshall；　was　one　of　codification。　But　not　all　those　who　have　commented　on　the　work　of　Adams　have　possessed　his　analytical　mind；　and　many　have　confused　what　was　fundamental　in　his　pronouncement　with　what　was　temporary　and　demanded　by　the　emergency　of　the　time。
  Always　the　American　people　have　stood；　from　the　first　days　of　their　migration　to　America；　for　the　right　of　the　people　of　a　territory　to　determine　their　own　development。　First　they　have　insisted　that　their　own　right　to　work　out　their　political　destiny　be　acknowledged　and　made　safe。　For　this　they　fought　the　Revolution。　It　has　followed　that　they　have　in　foreign　affairs　tried　to　keep　their　hands　free　from　entanglements　with　other　countries　and　have　refrained　from　interference　with　foreign　politics。　This　was　the　burden　of　Washington's　〃Farewell　Address；〃　and　it　was　a　message　which　Jefferson　reiterated　in　his　inaugural。　These　are　the　permanent　principles　which　have　controlled　enlightened　American　state