fect　than　when　it　has　been　established　for　the　protection　of　Privilege　of　the　most　restricted　kind。　By　Privilege　I　do　not　at　this　moment　mean　the　old　abuses　by　which　certain　rights　were　conceded　to　a　few；　to　the　prejudice　of　the　many；　no；　I　am　using　it　to　express　the　social　circle　of　the　governing　class。　But　throughout　creation　Nature　has　confined　the　vital　principle　within　a　narrow　space；　in　order　to　concentrate　its　power；　and　so　it　is　with　the　body　politic。　I　will　illustrate　this　thought　of　mine　by　examples。　Let　us　suppose　that　there　are　a　hundred　peers　in　France；　there　are　only　one　hundred　causes　of　offence。　Abolish　the　peerage；　and　all　the　wealthy　people　will　constitute　the　privileged　class；　instead　of　a　hundred；　you　will　have　ten　thousand；　instead　of　removing　class　distinctions；　you　have　merely　widened　the　mischief。　In　fact；　from　the　people's　point　of　view；　the　right　to　live　without　working　is　in　itself　a　privilege。　The　unproductive　consumer　is　a　robber　in　their　eyes。　The　only　work　that　they　understand　has　palpable　results；　they　set　no　value　on　intellectual　laborthe　kind　of　labor　which　is　the　principal　source　of　wealth　to　them。　So　by　multiplying　causes　of　offence　in　this　way；　you　extend　the　field　of　battle；　the　social　war　would　be　waged　on　all　points　instead　of　being　confined　within　a　limited　circle；　and　when　attack　and　resistance　become　general；　the　ruin　of　a　country　is　imminent。　Because　the　rich　will　always　be　fewer　in　number；　the　victory　will　be　to　the　poor　as　soon　as　it　comes　to　actual　fighting。　I　will　throw　the　burden　of　proof　on　history。
  〃The　institution　of　Senatorial　Privilege　enabled　the　Roman　Republic　to　conquer　the　world。　The　Senate　preserved　the　tradition　of　authority。　But　when　the　equites　and　the　novi　homines　had　extended　the　governing　classes　by　adding　to　the　numbers　of　the　Patricians；　the　State　came　to　ruin。　In　spite　of　Sylla；　and　after　the　time　of　Julius　Caesar；　Tiberius　raised　it　into　the　Roman　Empire；　the　system　was　embodied　in　one　man；　and　all　authority　was　centered　in　him；　a　measure　which　prolonged　the　magnificent　sway　of　the　Roman　for　several　centuries。　The　Emperor　had　ceased　to　dwell　in　Rome　when　the　Eternal　City　fell　into　the　hands　of　barbarians。　When　the　conqueror　invaded　our　country；　the　Franks　who　divided　the　land　among　themselves　invented　feudal　privilege　as　a　safeguard　for　property。　The　hundred　or　the　thousand　chiefs　who　owned　the　country；　established　their　institutions　with　a　view　to　defending　the　rights　gained　by　conquest。　The　duration　of　the　feudal　system　was　co…existent　with　the　restriction　of　Privilege。　But　when　the　leudes　（an　exact　translation　of　the　word　GENTLEMEN）　from　five　hundred　became　fifty　thousand；　there　came　a　revolution。　The　governing　power　was　too　widely　diffused；　it　lacked　force　and　concentration；　and　they　had　not　reckoned　with　the　two　powers；　Money　and　Thought；　that　had　set　those　free　who　had　been　beneath　their　rule。　So　the　victory　over　the　monarchical　system；　obtained　by　the　middle　classes　with　a　view　to　extending　the　number　of　the　privileged　class；　will　produce　its　natural　effectthe　people　will　triumph　in　turn　over　the　middle　classes。　If　this　trouble　comes　to　pass；　the　indiscriminate　right　of　suffrage　bestowed　upon　the　masses　will　be　a　dangerous　weapon　in　their　hands。　The　man　who　votes；　criticises。　An　authority　that　is　called　in　question　is　no　longer　an　authority。　Can　you　imagine　a　society　without　a　governing　authority？　No；　you　cannot。　Therefore；　authority　means　force；　and　a　basis　of　just　judgement　should　underlie　force。　Such　are　the　reasons　which　have　led　me　to　think　that　the　principle　of　popular　election　is　a　most　fatal　one　for　modern　governments。　I　think　that　my　attachment　to　the　poor　and　suffering　classes　has　been　sufficiently　proved；　and　that　no　one　will　accuse　me　of　bearing　any　ill…will　towards　them；　but　though　I　admire　the　sublime　patience　and　resignation　with　which　they　tread　the　path　of　toil；　I　must　pronounce　them　to　be　unfit　to　take　part　in　the　government。　The　proletariat　seem　to　me　to　be　the　minors　of　a　nation；　and　ought　to　remain　in　a　condition　of　tutelage。　Therefore；　gentlemen；　the　word　ELECTION；　to　my　thinking；　is　in　a　fair　way　to　cause　as　much　mischief　as　the　words　CONSCIENCE　and　LIBERTY；　which　ill…defined　and　ill…understood；　were　flung　broadcast　among　the　people；　to　serve　as　watchwords　of　revolt　and　incitements　to　destruction。　It　seems　to　me　to　be　a　right　and　necessary　thing　that　the　masses　should　be　kept　in　tutelage　for　the　good　of　society。〃
  〃This　system　of　yours　runs　so　clean　contrary　to　everybody's　notions　nowadays；　that　we　have　some　right　to　ask　your　reasons　for　it；〃　said　Genestas；　interrupting　the　doctor。
  〃By　all　means；　captain。〃
  〃What　is　this　the　master　is　saying？〃　cried　Jacquotte；　as　she　went　back　to　her　kitchen。　〃There　he　is；　the　poor　dear　man；　and　what　is　he　doing　but　advising　them　to　crush　the　people！　And　they　are　listening　to　him〃
  〃I　would　never　have　believed　it　of　M。　Benassis；〃　answered　Nicolle。
  〃If　I　require　that　the　ignorant　masses　should　be　governed　by　a　strong　hand；〃　the　doctor　resumed；　after　a　brief　pause；　〃I　should　desire　at　the　same　time　that　the　framework　of　the　social　system　should　be　sufficiently　yielding　and　elastic　to　allow　those　who　have　the　will　and　are　conscious　of　their　ability　to　emerge　from　the　crowd；　to　rise　and　take　their　place　among　the　privileged　classes。　The　aim　of　power　of　every　kind　is　its　own　preservation。　In　order　to　live；　a　government；　to…day　as　in　the　past；　must　press　the　strong　men　of　the　nation　into　its　service；　taking　them　from　every　quarter；　so　as　to　make　them　its　defenders；　and　to　remove　from　among　the　people　the　men　of　energy　who　incite　the　masses　to　insurrection。　By　opening　out　in　this　way　to　the　public　ambition　paths　that　are　at　once　difficult　and　easy；　easy　for　strong　wills；　difficult　for　weak　or　imperfect　ones；　a　State　averts　the　perils　of　the　revolutions　caused　by　the　struggles　of　men　of　superior　powers　to　rise　to　their　proper　level。　Our　long　agony　of　forty　years　should　have　made　it　clear　to　any　man　who　has　brains　that　social　superiorities　are　a　natural　outcome　of　the　order　of　things。　They　are　of　three　kinds　that　cannot　be　questionedthe　superiority　of　the　thinker；　the　superiority　of　the　politician；　the　superiority　of　wealth。　Is　not　that　as　much　as　to　say；　genius；　power；　and　money；　or；　in　yet　other　wordsthe　cause；　the　means；　and　the　effect？　But　suppose　a　kind　of　social　tabula　rasa；　every　social　unit　perfectly　equal；　an　increase　of　population　everywhere　in　the　same　ratio；　and　give　the　same　amount　of　land　to　each　family；　it　would　not　be　long　before　you　would　again　have　all　the　existing　inequalities　of　fortune；　it　is　glaringly　evident；　therefore；　that　there　are　such　things　as　superiority　of　fortune；　of　thinking　capacity；　and　of　power；　and　we　must　make　up　our　minds　to　this　fact；　but　the　masses　will　always　regard　rights　that　have　been　most　honestly　acquired　as　privileges；　and　as　a　wrong　done　to　themselves。
  〃The　SOCIAL　CONTRACT　founded　upon　this　basis　will　be　a　perpetual　pact　between　those　who　have　and　those　who　have　not。　And　acting　on　these　principles；　those　who　benefit　by　the　laws　will　be　the　lawmakers；　for　they　necessarily　have　the　instinct　of　self…preservation；　and　foresee　their　dangers。　It　is　even　more　to　their　interest　than　to　the　interest　of　the　masses　themselves　that　the　latter　should　be　quiet　and　contented。　The　happiness　of　the　people　should　be　ready　made　for　the　people。　If　you　look　at　society　as　a　whole　from　this　point　of　view；　you　will　soon　see；　as　I　do；　that　the　privilege　of　election　ought　only　to　be　exercised　by　men　who　possess　wealth；　power；　or　intelligence；　and　you　will　likewise　see　that　the　action　of　the　deputies　they　may　choose　to　represent　them　should　be　considerably　restricted。
  〃The　maker　of　laws；　gentlemen；　should　be　in　advance　of　his　age。　It　is　his　business　to　ascertain　the　tendency　of　erroneous　notions　popularly　held；　to　see　the　exact　direction　in　which　the　ideas　of　a　nation　are　tending；　he　labors　for　the　future　rather　than　for　the　present；　and　for　the　rising　generation　rather　than　for　the　one　that　is　passing　away。　But　if　you　call　in　the　masses　to　make　the　laws；　can　they　rise　above　their　own　level？　Nay。　The　more　faithfully　an　assembly　represents　the　opinions　held　by　the　crowd；　the　less　it　will　know　about　government；　the　less　lofty　its　ideas　will　be；　and　the　more　vague　and　vacillating　its　policy；　for　the　crowd　is　and　always　will　be　simply　a　crowd；　and　this　especially　with　us　in　France。　Law　involves　submission　to　regulations；　man　is　naturally　opposed　to　rules　and　regulations　of　all　kinds；　especially　if　they　interfere　with　his　interests；　so　is　it　likely　that　the　masses　will　enact　laws　that　are　contrary　to　their　own　inclinations？　No。
  〃Very　often　legislation　ought　to　run　counter　to　the　prevailing　tendencies　of　the　time。　If　the　law　is　to　be　shaped　by　the　prevailing　habits　of　thought　and　tendencies　of　a　nation；　would　not　that　mean　that　in　Spain　a　direct　encouragement　would　be　given　to　idleness　and　religious　intolerance；　in　England；　to　the　commercial　spirit；　in　Italy；　to　the　love　of　the　arts　that　may　be　the　expression　of　a　society；　but　by　which　no　society　can　entirely　exist；　in　Germany；　feudal　class　distinctions　would　be　fostered；　and　here；　in　France；　popular　legislation　would　promote　t