nervous　and　putrid　character。　　The　endemy　originates；　according　to　him；　only　in　local　telluric　changesin　deleterious　influences　which　develop　themselves　in　the　earth　and　in　the　water；　without　a　corruption　of　the　air。　　These　notions　were　variously　jumbled　together　in　his　time；　like　everything　which　human　understanding　separates　by　too　fine　a　line　of　limitation。　　The　estimation　of　cosmical　influences；　however；　in　the　epidemy　and　pestilence；　is　well　worthy　of　commendation；　and　Santa　Sofia；　in　this　respect；　not　only　agrees　with　the　most　intelligent　persons　of　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth　centuries；　but　he　has　also　promulgated　an　opinion　which　must；　even　now；　serve　as　a　foundation　for　our　scarcely　commenced　investigations　into　cosmical　influences。　　Pestilence　and　epidemy　consist　not　in　alterations　of　the　four　primary　qualities；　but　in　a　corruption　of　the　air；　powerful；　though　quite　immaterial；　and　not　cognoscible　by　the　senses（corruptio　aeris　non　substantialis；　sed　qualitativa）　in　a　disproportion　of　the　imponderables　in　the　atmosphere；　as　it　would　be　expressed　by　the　moderns。　　The　causes　of　the　pestilence　and　epidemy　are；　first　of　all；　astral　influences；　especially　on　occasions　of　planetary　conjunctions；　then　extensive　putrefaction　of　animal　and　vegetable　bodies；　and　terrestrial　corruptions　（corruptio　in　terra）：　　to　which　also　bad　diet　and　want　may　contribute。　　Santa　Sofia　considers　the　putrefaction　of　locusts；　that　had　perished　in　the　sea　and　were　again　thrown　up；　combined　with　astral　and　terrestrial　influences；　as　the　cause　of　the　pestilence　in　the　eventful　year　of　the　〃Great　Mortality。〃
  All　the　fevers　which　were　called　forth　by　the　pestilence　are；　according　to　him；　of　the　putrid　kind；　for　they　originate　principally　from　putridity　of　the　heart's　blood；　which　inevitably　follows　the　inhalation　of　infected　air。　　The　Oriental　Plague　is；　sometimes；　but　by　no　means　always　occasioned　by　pestilence　（？）；　which　imparts　to　it　a　character　（qualitas　occulta）　hostile　to　human　nature。　　It　originates　frequently　from　other　causes；　among　which　this　physician　was　aware　that　contagion　was　to　be　reckoned；　and　it　deserves　to　be　remarked　that　he　held　epidemic　small…pox　and　measles　to　be　infallible　forerunners　of　the　plague；　as　do　the　physicians　and　people　of　the　East　at　the　present　day。
  In　the　exposition　of　his　therapeutical　views　of　the　plague；　a　clearness　of　intellect　is　again　shown　by　Santa　Sofia；　which　reflects　credit　on　the　age。　　It　seemed　to　him　to　depend；　1st；　on　an　evacuation　of　putrid　matters　by　purgatives　and　bleeding；　yet　he　did　not　sanction　the　employment　of　these　means　indiscriminately　and　without　consideration；　least　of　all　where　the　condition　of　the　blood　was　healthy。　　He　also　declared　himself　decidedly　against　bleeding　ad　deliquium　（venae　sectio　eradicativa）。　　2nd；　Strengthening　of　the　heart　and　prevention　of　putrescence。　　3rd；　Appropriate　regimen。　　4th；　Improvement　of　the　air。　　5th；　Appropriate　treatment　of　tumid　glands　and　inflammatory　boils；　with　emollient；　or　even　stimulating　poultices　（mustard；　lily…bulbs）；　as　well　as　with　red…hot　gold　and　iron。　　Lastly；　6th；　Attention　to　prominent　symptoms。　　The　stores　of　the　Arabian　pharmacy；　which　he　brought　into　action　to　meet　all　these　indications；　were　indeed　very　considerable；　it　is　to　be　observed；　however；　that；　for　the　most　part；　gentle　means　were　accumulated；　which；　in　case　of　abuse；　would　do　no　harm：　　for　the　character　of　the　Arabian　system　of　medicine；　whose　principles　were　everywhere　followed　at　this　time；　was　mildness　and　caution。　　On　this　account；　too；　we　cannot　believe　that　a　very　prolix　treatise　by　Marsigli　di　Santa　Sofia；　a　contemporary　relative　of　Galeazzo；　on　the　prevention　and　treatment　of　plague；　can　have　caused　much　harm；　although　perhaps；　even　in　the　fourteenth　century；　an　agreeable　latitude　and　confident　assertions　respecting　things　which　no　mortal　has　investigated；　or　which　it　is　quite　a　matter　of　indifference　to　distinguish；　were　considered　as　proofs　of　a　valuable　practical　talent。
  The　agreement　of　contemporary　and　later　writers　shows　that　the　published　views　of　the　most　celebrated　physicians　of　the　fourteenth　century　were　those　generally　adopted。　　Among　these；　Chalin　de　Vinario　is　the　most　experienced。　　Though　devoted　to　astrology　still　more　than　his　distinguished　contemporary；　he　acknowledges　the　great　power　of　terrestrial　influences；　and　expresses　himself　very　sensibly　on　the　indisputable　doctrine　of　contagion；　endeavouring　thereby　to　apologise　for　many　surgeons　and　physicians　of　his　time　who　neglected　their　duty。　　He　asserted　boldly　and　with　truth；　〃that　all　epidemic　diseases　might　become　contagious；　and　all　fevers　epidemic；〃　which　attentive　observers　of　all　subsequent　ages　have　confirmed。
  He　delivered　his　sentiments　on　blood…letting　with　sagacity；　as　an　experienced　physician；　yet　he　was　unable；　as　may　be　imagined；　to　moderate　the　desire　for　bleeding　shown　by　the　ignorant　monks。　　He　was　averse　to　draw　blood　from　the　veins　of　patients　under　fourteen　years　of　age；　but　counteracted　inflammatory　excitement　in　them　by　cupping；　and　endeavoured　to　moderate　the　inflammation　of　the　tumid　glands　by　leeches。　　Most　of　those　who　were　bled；　died；　he　therefore　reserved　this　remedy　for　the　plethoric；　especially　for　the　papal　courtiers　and　the　hypocritical　priests；　whom　he　saw　gratifying　their　sensual　desires；　and　imitating　Epicurus；　whilst　they　pompously　pretended　to　follow　Christ。　　He　recommended　burning　the　boils　with　a　red…hot　iron　only　in　the　plague　without　fever；　which　occurred　in　single　cases；　and　was　always　ready　to　correct　those　over…hasty　surgeons　who；　with　fire　and　violent　remedies；　did　irremediable　injury　to　their　patients。　　Michael　Savonarola；　professor　in　Ferrara　（1462）；　reasoning　on　the　susceptibility　of　the　human　frame　to　the　influence　of　pestilential　infection；　as　the　cause　of　such　various　modifications　of　disease；　expresses　himself　as　a　modern　physician　would　on　this　point；　and　an　adoption　of　the　principle　of　contagion　was　the　foundation　of　his　definition　of　the　plague。　　No　less　worthy　of　observation　are　the　views　of　the　celebrated　Valescus　of　Taranta；　who；　during　the　final　visitation　of　the　Black　Death；　in　1382；　practised　as　a　physician　at　Montpellier；　and　handed　down　to　posterity　what　has　been　repeated　in　innumerable　treatises　on　plague；　which　were　written　during　the　fifteenth　and　sixteenth　centuries。
  Of　all　these　notions　and　views　regarding　the　plague；　whose　development　we　have　represented；　there　are　two　especially；　which　are　prominent　in　historical　importance：…　1st；　The　opinion　of　learned　physicians；　that　the　pestilence；　or　epidemic　constitution；　is　the　parent　of　various　kinds　of　disease；　that　the　plague　sometimes；　indeed；　but　by　no　means　always；　originates　from　it：　that；　to　speak　in　the　language　of　the　moderns；　the　pestilence　bears　the　same　relation　to　contagion　that　a　predisposing　cause　does　to　an　occasional　cause；　and　2ndly；　the　universal　conviction　of　the　contagious　power　of　that　disease。
  Contagion　gradually　attracted　more　notice：　　it　was　thought　that　in　it　the　most　powerful　occasional　cause　might　be　avoided；　the　possibility　of　protecting　whole　cities　by　separation　became　gradually　more　evident；　and　so　horrifying　was　the　recollection　of　the　eventful　year　of　the　〃Great　Mortality；〃　that　before　the　close　of　the　fourteenth　century；　ere　the　ill　effects　of　the　Black　Plague　had　ceased；　nations　endeavoured　to　guard　against　the　return　of　this　enemy　by　an　earnest　and　effectual　defence。
  The　first　regulation　which　was　issued　for　this　purpose；　originated　with　Viscount　Bernabo；　and　is　dated　the　17th　January；　1374。　〃Every　plague…patient　was　to　be　taken　out　of　the　city　into　the　fields；　there　to　die　or　to　recover。　　Those　who　attended　upon　a　plague…patient；　were　to　remain　apart　for　ten　days　before　they　again　associated　with　anybody。　　The　priests　were　to　examine　the　diseased；　and　point　out　to　special　commissioners　the　persons　infected；　under　punishment　of　the　confiscation　of　their　goods　and　of　being　burned　alive。　　Whoever　imported　the　plague；　the　state　condemned　his　goods　to　confiscation。　　Finally；　none　except　those　who　were　appointed　for　that　purpose　were　to　attend　plague…　patients；　under　penalty　of　death　and　confiscation。
  These　orders；　in　correspondence　with　the　spirit　of　the　fourteenth　century；　are　sufficiently　decided　to　indicate　a　recollection　of　the　good　effects　of　confinement；　and　of　keeping　at　a　distance　those　suspected　of　having　plague。　　It　was　said　that　Milan　itself；　by　a　rigorous　barricade　of　three　houses　in　which　the　plague　had　broken　out；　maintained　itself　free　from　the　〃Great　Mortality〃　for　a　considerable　time；　and　examples　of　the　preservation　of　individual　families；　by　means　of　a　strict　separation；　were　certainly　very　frequent。　　That　these　orders　must　have　caused　universal　affliction　from　their　uncommon　severity；　as　we　know　to　have　been　especially　the　case　in　the　city　of　Reggio；　may　be　easily　conceived；　but　Bernabo　did　not　suffer　himself　to　be　deterred　from　his　purpose　by　fearon　the　contrary；　when　the　plague　returned　in　the　year　1383；　he　forbade　the　admission　of　people　from　infected　places　into　his　territories　on　pain　of　death。　　We　have　now；　it　is　true；　no　account　how　far　he　succeeded；　yet　it　is　to　be　supposed　that　he　arrested　the　disease；　for　it　had