reover；　is　not　exempt　from　the　suspicion　of　covetousness；　yet　he　was　unable；　in　his　own　fortress　of　Kyberg；　to　protect　some　hundreds　of　Jews；　who　had　been　received　there；　from　being　barbarously　burnt　by　the　inhabitants。　　Several　other　princes　and　counts；　among　whom　was　Ruprecht　von　der　Pfalz；　took　the　Jews　under　their　protection；　on　the　payment　of　large　sums：　　in　consequence　of　which　they　were　called　〃Jew…masters；〃　and　were　in　danger　of　being　attacked　by　the　populace　and　by　their　powerful　neighbours。　　These　persecuted　and　ill…used　people；　except　indeed　where　humane　individuals　took　compassion　on　them　at　their　own　peril；　or　when　they　could　command　riches　to　purchase　protection；　had　no　place　of　refuge　left　but　the　distant　country　of　Lithuania；　where　Boleslav　V。；　Duke　of　Poland　（1227…1279）　had　before　granted　them　liberty　of　conscience；　and　King　Casimir　the　Great　（1333…1370）；　yielding　to　the　entreaties　of　Esther；　a　favourite　Jewess；　received　them；　and　granted　them　further　protection；　on　which　account；　that　country　is　still　inhabited　by　a　great　number　of　Jews；　who　by　their　secluded　habits　have；　more　than　any　people　in　Europe；　retained　the　manners　of　the　Middle　Ages。
  But　to　return　to　the　fearful　accusations　against　the　Jews；　it　was　reported　in　all　Europe　that　they　were　in　connection　with　secret　superiors　in　Toledo；　to　whose　decrees　they　were　subject；　and　from　whom　they　had　received　commands　respecting　the　coining　of　base　money；　poisoning；　the　murder　of　Christian　children；　&c；　that　they　received　the　poison　by　sea　from　remote　parts；　and　also　prepared　it　themselves　from　spiders；　owls；　and　other　venomous　animals；　but；　in　order　that　their　secret　might　not　be　discovered；　that　it　was　known　only　to　their　Rabbis　and　rich　men。　　Apparently　there　were　but　few　who　did　not　consider　this　extravagant　accusation　well　founded；　indeed；　in　many　writings　of　the　fourteenth　century；　we　find　great　acrimony　with　regard　to　the　suspected　poison…mixers；　which　plainly　demonstrates　the　prejudice　existing　against　them。　　Unhappily；　after　the　confessions　of　the　first　victims　in　Switzerland；　the　rack　extorted　similar　ones　in　various　places。　　Some　even　acknowledged　having　received　poisonous　powder　in　bags；　and　injunctions　from　Toledo；　by　secret　messengers。　　Bags　of　this　description　were　also　often　found　in　wells；　though　it　was　not　unfrequently　discovered　that　the　Christians　themselves　had　thrown　them　in；　probably　to　give　occasion　to　murder　and　pillage；　similar　instances　of　which　may　be　found　in　the　persecutions　of　the　witches。
  This　picture　needs　no　additions。　　A　lively　image　of　the　Black　Plague；　and　of　the　moral　evil　which　followed　in　its　train；　will　vividly　represent　itself　to　him　who　is　acquainted　with　nature　and　the　constitution　of　society。　　Almost　the　only　credible　accounts　of　the　manner　of　living；　and　of　the　ruin　which　occurred　in　private　life　during　this　pestilence；　are　from　Italy；　and　these　may　enable　us　to　form　a　just　estimate　of　the　general　state　of　families　in　Europe；　taking　into　consideration　what　is　peculiar　in　the　manners　of　each　country。
  〃When　the　evil　had　become　universal〃　（speaking　of　Florence）；　〃the　hearts　of　all　the　inhabitants　were　closed　to　feelings　of　humanity。　They　fled　from　the　sick　and　all　that　belonged　to　them；　hoping　by　these　means　to　save　themselves。　　Others　shut　themselves　up　in　their　houses；　with　their　wives；　their　children　and　households；　living　on　the　most　costly　food；　but　carefully　avoiding　all　excess。　None　were　allowed　access　to　them；　no　intelligence　of　death　or　sickness　was　permitted　to　reach　their　ears；　and　they　spent　their　time　in　singing　and　music；　and　other　pastimes。　　Others；　on　the　contrary；　considered　eating　and　drinking　to　excess；　amusements　of　all　descriptions；　the　indulgence　of　every　gratification；　and　an　indifference　to　what　was　passing　around　them；　as　the　best　medicine；　and　acted　accordingly。　　They　wandered　day　and　night　from　one　tavern　to　another；　and　feasted　without　moderation　or　bounds。　In　this　way　they　endeavoured　to　avoid　all　contact　with　the　sick；　and　abandoned　their　houses　and　property　to　chance；　like　men　whose　death…knell　had　already　tolled。
  〃Amid　this　general　lamentation　and　woe；　the　influence　and　authority　of　every　law；　human　and　divine；　vanished。　　Most　of　those　who　were　in　office　had　been　carried　off　by　the　plague；　or　lay　sick；　or　had　lost　so　many　members　of　their　family；　that　they　were　unable　to　attend　to　their　duties；　so　that　thenceforth　every　one　acted　as　he　thought　proper。　　Others　in　their　mode　of　living　chose　a　middle　course。　　They　ate　and　drank　what　they　pleased；　and　walked　abroad；　carrying　odoriferous　flowers；　herbs；　or　spices；　which　they　smelt　to　from　time　to　time；　in　order　to　invigorate　the　brain；　and　to　avert　the　baneful　influence　of　the　air；　infected　by　the　sick　and　by　the　innumerable　corpses　of　those　who　had　died　of　the　plague。　　Others　carried　their　precaution　still　further；　and　thought　the　surest　way　to　escape　death　was　by　flight。　　They　therefore　left　the　city；　women　as　well　as　men　abandoning　their　dwellings　and　their　relations；　and　retiring　into　the　country。　　But　of　these　also　many　were　carried　off；　most　of　them　alone　and　deserted　by　all　the　world；　themselves　having　previously　set　the　example。　　Thus　it　was　that　one　citizen　fled　from　anothera　neighbour　from　his　neighboursa　relation　from　his　relations；　and　in　the　end；　so　completely　had　terror　extinguished　every　kindlier　feeling；　that　the　brother　forsook　the　brotherthe　sister　the　sisterthe　wife　her　husband；　and　at　last；　even　the　parent　his　own　offspring；　and　abandoned　them；　unvisited　and　unsoothed；　to　their　fate。　　Those；　therefore；　that　stood　in　need　of　assistance　fell　a　prey　to　greedy　attendants；　who；　for　an　exorbitant　recompense；　merely　handed　the　sick　their　food　and　medicine；　remained　with　them　in　their　last　moments；　and　then　not　unfrequently　became　themselves　victims　to　their　avarice　and　lived　not　to　enjoy　their　extorted　gain。　　Propriety　and　decorum　were　extinguished　among　the　helpless　sick。　　Females　of　rank　seemed　to　forget　their　natural　bashfulness；　and　committed　the　care　of　their　persons；　indiscriminately；　to　men　and　women　of　the　lowest　order。　　No　longer　were　women；　relatives　or　friends；　found　in　the　house　of　mourning；　to　share　the　grief　of　the　survivorsno　longer　was　the　corpse　accompanied　to　the　grave　by　neighbours　and　a　numerous　train　of　priests；　carrying　wax　tapers　and　singing　psalms；　nor　was　it　borne　along　by　other　citizens　of　equal　rank。　　Many　breathed　their　last　without　a　friend　to　soothe　their　dying　pillow；　and　few　indeed　were　they　who　departed　amid　the　lamentations　and　tears　of　their　friends　and　kindred。　　Instead　of　sorrow　and　mourning；　appeared　indifference；　frivolity　and　mirth；　this　being　considered；　especially　by　the　females；　as　conducive　to　health。　　Seldom　was　the　body　followed　by　even　ten　or　twelve　attendants；　and　instead　of　the　usual　bearers　and　sextons；　mercenaries　of　the　lowest　of　the　populace　undertook　the　office　for　the　sake　of　gain；　and　accompanied　by　only　a　few　priests；　and　often　without　a　single　taper；　it　was　borne　to　the　very　nearest　church；　and　lowered　into　the　grave　that　was　not　already　too　full　to　receive　it。　　Among　the　middling　classes；　and　especially　among　the　poor；　the　misery　was　still　greater。　　Poverty　or　negligence　induced　most　of　these　to　remain　in　their　dwellings；　or　in　the　immediate　neighbourhood；　and　thus　they　fell　by　thousands；　and　many　ended　their　lives　in　the　streets　by　day　and　by　night。　　The　stench　of　putrefying　corpses　was　often　the　first　indication　to　their　neighbours　that　more　deaths　had　occurred。　　The　survivors；　to　preserve　themselves　from　infection；　generally　had　the　bodies　taken　out　of　the　houses　and　laid　before　the　doors；　where　the　early　morning　found　them　in　heaps；　exposed　to　the　affrighted　gaze　of　the　passing　stranger。　　It　was　no　longer　possible　to　have　a　bier　for　every　corpsethree　or　four　were　generally　laid　togetherhusband　and　wife；　father　and　mother；　with　two　or　three　children；　were　frequently　borne　to　the　grave　on　the　same　bier；　and　it　often　happened　that　two　priests　would　accompany　a　coffin；　bearing　the　cross　before　it；　and　be　joined　on　the　way　by　several　other　funerals；　so　that　instead　of　one；　there　were　five　or　six　bodies　for　interment。〃
  Thus　far　Boccacio。　　On　the　conduct　of　the　priests；　another　contemporary　observes：　　〃In　large　and　small　towns　they　had　withdrawn　themselves　through　fear；　leaving　the　performance　of　ecclesiastical　duties　to　the　few　who　were　found　courageous　and　faithful　enough　to　undertake　them。〃　　But　we　ought　not　on　that　account　to　throw　more　blame　on　them　than　on　others；　for　we　find　proofs　of　the　same　timidity　and　heartlessness　in　every　class。　During　the　prevalence　of　the　Black　Plague；　the　charitable　orders　conducted　themselves　admirably；　and　did　as　much　good　as　can　be　done　by　individual　bodies　in　times　of　great　misery　and　destruction；　when　compassion；　courage；　and　the　nobler　feelings　are　found　but　in　the　few；　while　cowardice；　selfishness　and　ill…will；　with　the　baser　passions　in　their　train；　assert　the　supremacy。　　In　place　of　virtue　which　had　been　driven　from　the　earth；　wickedness　everywhere　reared　her　rebellious　standard；　and　succeeding　generations　were　consigned　to　the　dominion　of　her　baleful　tyranny。
  CHAPTER　VIPHYSICIANS
  If　we　now　turn　to　the　medical　tale