d；　and　in　the　rich　heritages　which　fell　in　to　the　Church　from　all　quarters。　　The　sittings　of　Parliament；　of　the　King's　Bench；　and　of　most　of　the　other　courts；　were　suspended　as　long　as　the　malady　raged。　　The　laws　of　peace　availed　not　during　the　dominion　of　death。　　Pope　Clement　took　advantage　of　this　state　of　disorder　to　adjust　the　bloody　quarrel　between　Edward　III　and　Philip　VI；　yet　he　only　succeeded　during　the　period　that　the　plague　commanded　peace。　　Philip's　death　（1350）　annulled　all　treaties；　and　it　is　related　that　Edward；　with　other　troops　indeed；　but　with　the　same　leaders　and　knights；　again　took　the　field。　　Ireland　was　much　less　heavily　visited　that　England。　　The　disease　seems　to　have　scarcely　reached　the　mountainous　districts　of　that　kingdom；　and　Scotland　too　would　perhaps　have　remained　free；　had　not　the　Scots　availed　themselves　of　the　discomfiture　of　the　English　to　make　an　irruption　into　their　territory；　which　terminated　in　the　destruction　of　their　army；　by　the　plague　and　by　the　sword；　and　the　extension　of　the　pestilence；　through　those　who　escaped；　over　the　whole　country。
  At　the　commencement；　there　was　in　England　a　superabundance　of　all　the　necessaries　of　life；　but　the　plague；　which　seemed　then　to　be　the　sole　disease；　was　soon　accompanied　by　a　fatal　murrain　among　the　cattle。　　Wandering　about　without　herdsmen；　they　fell　by　thousands；　and；　as　has　likewise　been　observed　in　Africa；　the　birds　and　beasts　of　prey　are　said　not　to　have　touched　them。　　Of　what　nature　this　murrain　may　have　been；　can　no　more　be　determined；　than　whether　it　originated　from　communication　with　plague　patients；　or　from　other　causes；　but　thus　much　is　certain；　that　it　did　not　break　out　until　after　the　commencement　of　the　Black　Death。　　In　consequence　of　this　murrain；　and　the　impossibility　of　removing　the　corn　from　the　fields；　there　was　everywhere　a　great　rise　in　the　price　of　food；　which　to　many　was　inexplicable；　because　the　harvest　had　been　plentiful；　by　others　it　was　attributed　to　the　wicked　designs　of　the　labourers　and　dealers；　but　it　really　had　its　foundation　in　the　actual　deficiency　arising　from　circumstances　by　which　individual　classes　at　all　times　endeavour　to　profit。　　For　a　whole　year；　until　it　terminated　in　August；　1349；　the　Black　Plague　prevailed　in　this　beautiful　island；　and　everywhere　poisoned　the　springs　of　comfort　and　prosperity。
  In　other　countries；　it　generally　lasted　only　half　a　year；　but　returned　frequently　in　individual　places；　on　which　account；　some；　without　sufficient　proof；　assigned　to　it　a　period　of　seven　years。
  Spain　was　uninterruptedly　ravaged　by　the　Black　Plague　till　after　the　year　1350；　to　which　the　frequent　internal　feuds　and　the　wars　with　the　Moors　not　a　little　contributed。　　Alphonso　XI。；　whose　passion　for　war　carried　him　too　far；　died　of　it　at　the　siege　of　Gibraltar；　on　the　26th　of　March；　1350。　　He　was　the　only　king　in　Europe　who　fell　a　sacrifice　to　it；　but　even　before　this　period；　innumerable　families　had　been　thrown　into　affliction。　　The　mortality　seems　otherwise　to　have　been　smaller　in　Spain　than　in　Italy；　and　about　as　considerable　as　in　France。
  The　whole　period　during　which　the　Black　Plague　raged　with　destructive　violence　in　Europe　was；　with　the　exception　of　Russia；　from　the　year　1347　to　1350。　　The　plagues　which　in　the　sequel　often　returned　until　the　year　1383；　we　do　not　consider　as　belonging　to　〃the　Great　Mortality。〃　　They　were　rather　common　pestilences；　without　inflammation　of　the　lungs；　such　as　in　former　times；　and　in　the　following　centuries；　were　excited　by　the　matter　of　contagion　everywhere　existing；　and　which；　on　every　favourable　occasion；　gained　ground　anew；　as　is　usually　the　case　with　this　frightful　disease。
  The　concourse　of　large　bodies　of　people　was　especially　dangerous；　and　thus　the　premature　celebration　of　the　Jubilee　to　which　Clement　VI。　cited　the　faithful　to　Rome　（1350）　during　the　great　epidemic；　caused　a　new　eruption　of　the　plague；　from　which　it　is　said　that　scarcely　one　in　a　hundred　of　the　pilgrims　escaped。
  Italy　was；　in　consequence；　depopulated　anew；　and　those　who　returned；　spread　poison　and　corruption　of　morals　in　all　directions。　　It　is　therefore　the　less　apparent　how　that　Pope；　who　was　in　general　so　wise　and　considerate；　and　who　knew　how　to　pursue　the　path　of　reason　and　humanity　under　the　most　difficult　circumstances；　should　have　been　led　to　adopt　a　measure　so　injurious；　since　he　himself　was　so　convinced　of　the　salutary　effect　of　seclusion；　that　during　the　plague　in　Avignon　he　kept　up　constant　fires；　and　suffered　no　one　to　approach　him；　and　in　other　respects　gave　such　orders　as　averted；　or　alleviated；　much　misery。
  The　changes　which　occurred　about　this　period　in　the　north　of　Europe　are　sufficiently　memorable　to　claim　a　few　moments'　attention。　　In　Sweden　two　princes　diedHaken　and　Knut；　half…　brothers　of　King　Magnus；　and　in　Westgothland　alone；　466　priests。　The　inhabitants　of　Iceland　and　Greenland　found　in　the　coldness　of　their　inhospitable　climate　no　protection　against　the　southern　enemy　who　had　penetrated　to　them　from　happier　countries。　　The　plague　caused　great　havoc　among　them。　　Nature　made　no　allowance　for　their　constant　warfare　with　the　elements；　and　the　parsimony　with　which　she　had　meted　out　to　them　the　enjoyments　of　life。　　In　Denmark　and　Norway；　however；　people　were　so　occupied　with　their　own　misery；　that　the　accustomed　voyages　to　Greenland　ceased。　Towering　icebergs　formed　at　the　same　time　on　the　coast　of　East　Greenland；　in　consequence　of　the　general　concussion　of　the　earth's　organism；　and　no　mortal；　from　that　time　forward；　has　ever　seen　that　shore　or　its　inhabitants。
  It　has　been　observed　above；　that　in　Russia　the　Black　Plague　did　not　break　out　until　1351；　after　it　had　already　passed　through　the　south　and　north　of　Europe。　　In　this　country　also；　the　mortality　was　extraordinarily　great；　and　the　same　scenes　of　affliction　and　despair　were　exhibited；　as　had　occurred　in　those　nations　which　had　already　passed　the　ordeal：　　the　same　mode　of　burialthe　same　horrible　certainty　of　deaththe　same　torpor　and　depression　of　spirits。　　The　wealthy　abandoned　their　treasures；　and　gave　their　villages　and　estates　to　the　churches　and　monasteries；　this　being；　according　to　the　notions　of　the　age；　the　surest　way　of　securing　the　favour　of　Heaven　and　the　forgiveness　of　past　sins。　　In　Russia；　too；　the　voice　of　nature　was　silenced　by　fear　and　horror。　　In　the　hour　of　danger；　fathers　and　mothers　deserted　their　children；　and　children　their　parents。
  Of　all　the　estimates　of　the　number　of　lives　lost　in　Europe；　the　most　probable　is；　that　altogether　a　fourth　part　of　the　inhabitants　were　carried　off。　　Now；　if　Europe　at　present　contain　210；000；000　inhabitants；　the　population；　not　to　take　a　higher　estimate；　which　might　easily　by　justified；　amounted　to　at　least　105；000；000　in　the　sixteenth　century。
  It　may　therefore　be　assumed；　without　exaggeration；　that　Europe　lost　during　the　Black　Death　25；000；000　of　inhabitants。
  That　her　nations　could　so　quickly　overcome　such　a　fearful　concussion　in　their　external　circumstances；　and；　in　general；　without　retrograding　more　than　they　actually　did；　could　so　develop　their　energies　in　the　following　century；　is　a　most　convincing　proof　of　the　indestructibility　of　human　society　as　a　whole。　　To　assume；　however；　that　it　did　not　suffer　any　essential　change　internally；　because　in　appearance　everything　remained　as　before；　is　inconsistent　with　a　just　view　of　cause　and　effect。　　Many　historians　seem　to　have　adopted　such　an　opinion；　accustomed；　as　usual；　to　judge　of　the　moral　condition　of　the　people　solely　according　to　the　vicissitudes　of　earthly　power；　the　events　of　battles；　and　the　influence　of　religion；　but　to　pass　over　with　indifference　the　great　phenomena　of　nature；　which　modify；　not　only　the　surface　of　the　earth；　but　also　the　human　mind。　　Hence；　most　of　them　have　touched　but　superficially　on　the　〃Great　Mortality〃　of　the　fourteenth　century。　　We；　for　our　parts；　are　convinced　that　in　the　history　of　the　world　the　Black　Death　is　one　of　the　most　important　events　which　have　prepared　the　way　for　the　present　state　of　Europe。
  He　who　studies　the　human　mind　with　attention；　and　forms　a　deliberate　judgment　on　the　intellectual　powers　which　set　people　and　States　in　motion；　may　perhaps　find　some　proofs　of　this　assertion　in　the　following　observations：…　at　that　time；　the　advancement　of　the　hierarchy　was；　in　most　countries；　extraordinary；　for　the　Church　acquired　treasures　and　large　properties　in　land；　even　to　a　greater　extent　than　after　the　Crusades；　but　experience　has　demonstrated　that　such　a　state　of　things　is　ruinous　to　the　people；　and　causes　them　to　retrograde；　as　was　evinced　on　this　occasion。
  After　the　cessation　of　the　Black　Plague；　a　greater　fecundity　in　women　was　everywhere　remarkablea　grand　phenomenon；　which；　from　its　occurrence　after　every　destructive　pestilence；　proves　to　conviction；　if　any　occurrence　can　do　so；　the　prevalence　of　a　higher　power　in　the　direction　of　general　organic　life。　　Marriages　were；　almost　without　exception；　prolific；　and　double　and　triple　births　were　more　frequent　than　at　other　times；　under　which　head；　we　should　remember　the　strange　remark；　that　after　the　〃Great　Mortality〃　the　children　were　said　to　have　got　fewer　teeth　than　before；　at　which　contemporaries　were　mightily　shocked；　and　even