n；　a　man　who　knew　nothing　of　Greek　literature　beyond　the　common　school…books；　and　who　seems　to　have　brought　to　what　he　had　read　scarcely　more　than　the　discernment　of　a　common　school…boy。　　He　used　to　assert；　with　that　arrogant　absurdity　which；　in　spite　of　his　great　abilities　and　virtues；　renders　him；　perhaps　the　most　ridiculous　character　in　literary　history；　that　Demosthenes　spoke　to　a　people　of　brutes；to　a　barbarous　people；that　there　could　have　been　no　civilisation　before　the　invention　of　printing。　　Johnson　was　a　keen　but　a　very　narrow…minded　observer　of　mankind。　　He　perpetually　confounded　their　general　nature　with　their　particular　circumstances。　　He　knew　London　intimately。　　The　sagacity　of　his　remarks　on　its　society　is　perfectly　astonishing。　　But　Fleet　Street　was　the　world　to　him。　　He　saw　that　Londoners　who　did　not　read　were　profoundly　ignorant；　and　he　inferred　that　a　Greek；　who　had　few　or　no　books；　must　have　been　as　uninformed　as　one　of　Mr　Thrale's　draymen。
  There　seems　to　be；　on　the　contrary；　every　reason　to　believe；　that；　in　general　intelligence；　the　Athenian　populace　far　surpassed　the　lower　orders　of　any　community　that　has　ever　existed。　　It　must　be　considered；　that　to　be　a　citizen　was　to　be　a　legislator；a　soldier；a　judge；one　upon　whose　voice　might　depend　the　fate　of　the　wealthiest　tributary　state；　of　the　most　eminent　public　man。　　The　lowest　offices；　both　of　agriculture　and　of　trade；　were；　in　common；　performed　by　slaves。　　The　commonwealth　supplied　its　meanest　members　with　the　support　of　life；　the　opportunity　of　leisure；　and　the　means　of　amusement。　　Books　were　indeed　few：　　but　they　were　excellent；　and　they　were　accurately　known。　　It　is　not　by　turning　over　libraries；　but　by　repeatedly　perusing　and　intently　contemplating　a　few　great　models；　that　the　mind　is　best　disciplined。　　A　man　of　letters　must　now　read　much　that　he　soon　forgets；　and　much　from　which　he　learns　nothing　worthy　to　be　remembered。　　The　best　works　employ；　in　general；　but　a　small　portion　of　his　time。　　Demosthenes　is　said　to　have　transcribed　six　times　the　history　of　Thucydides。　　If　he　had　been　a　young　politician　of　the　present　age；　he　might　in　the　same　space　of　time　have　skimmed　innumerable　newspapers　and　pamphlets。　　I　do　not　condemn　that　desultory　mode　of　study　which　the　state　of　things；　in　our　day；　renders　a　matter　of　necessity。　　But　I　may　be　allowed　to　doubt　whether　the　changes　on　which　the　admirers　of　modern　institutions　delight　to　dwell　have　improved　our　condition　so　much　in　reality　as　in　appearance。　　Rumford；　it　is　said；　proposed　to　the　Elector　of　Bavaria　a　scheme　for　feeding　his　soldiers　at　a　much　cheaper　rate　than　formerly。　　His　plan　was　simply　to　compel　them　to　masticate　their　food　thoroughly。　　A　small　quantity；　thus　eaten；　would；　according　to　that　famous　projector；　afford　more　sustenance　than　a　large　meal　hastily　devoured。　　I　do　not　know　how　Rumford's　proposition　was　received；　but　to　the　mind；　I　believe；　it　will　be　found　more　nutritious　to　digest　a　page　than　to　devour　a　volume。
  Books；　however；　were　the　least　part　of　the　education　of　an　Athenian　citizen。　　Let　us；　for　a　moment；　transport　ourselves　in　thought；　to　that　glorious　city。　　Let　us　imagine　that　we　are　entering　its　gates；　in　the　time　of　its　power　and　glory。　　A　crowd　is　assembled　round　a　portico。　　All　are　gazing　with　delight　at　the　entablature；　for　Phidias　is　putting　up　the　frieze。　　We　turn　into　another　street；　a　rhapsodist　is　reciting　there：　　men；　women；　children　are　thronging　round　him：　　the　tears　are　running　down　their　cheeks：　　their　eyes　are　fixed：　　their　very　breath　is　still；　for　he　is　telling　how　Priam　fell　at　the　feet　of　Achilles；　and　kissed　those　hands；the　terriblethe　murderous；which　had　slain　so　many　of　his　sons。　（kai　kuse　cheiras；　deinas；　anorophonous；　ai　oi　poleas　ktanon　uias。）
  We　enter　the　public　place；　there　is　a　ring　of　youths；　all　leaning　forward；　with　sparkling　eyes；　and　gestures　of　expectation。　Socrates　is　pitted　against　the　famous　atheist；　from　Ionia；　and　has　just　brought　him　to　a　contradiction　in　terms。　　But　we　are　interrupted。　　The　herald　is　crying〃Room　for　the　Prytanes。〃　　The　general　assembly　is　to　meet。　　The　people　are　swarming　in　on　every　side。　　Proclamation　is　made〃Who　wishes　to　speak？〃　　There　is　a　shout；　and　a　clapping　of　hands：　　Pericles　is　mounting　the　stand。　Then　for　a　play　of　Sophocles；　and　away　to　sup　with　Aspasia。　　I　know　of　no　modern　university　which　has　so　excellent　a　system　of　education。
  Knowledge　thus　acquired　and　opinions　thus　formed　were；　indeed；　likely　to　be；　in　some　respects；　defective。　　Propositions　which　are　advanced　in　discourse　generally　result　from　a　partial　view　of　the　question；　and　cannot　be　kept　under　examination　long　enough　to　be　corrected。　　Men　of　great　conversational　powers　almost　universally　practise　a　sort　of　lively　sophistry　and　exaggeration；　which　deceives；　for　the　moment；　both　themselves　and　their　auditors。　　Thus　we　see　doctrines；　which　cannot　bear　a　close　inspection；　triumph　perpetually　in　drawing…rooms；　in　debating　societies；　and　even　in　legislative　or　judicial　assemblies。　　To　the　conversational　education　of　the　Athenians　I　am　inclined　to　attribute　the　great　looseness　of　reasoning　which　is　remarkable　in　most　of　their　scientific　writings。　　Even　the　most　illogical　of　modern　writers　would　stand　perfectly　aghast　at　the　puerile　fallacies　which　seem　to　have　deluded　some　of　the　greatest　men　of　antiquity。　　Sir　Thomas　Lethbridge　would　stare　at　the　political　economy　of　Xenophon；　and　the　author　of　〃Soirees　de　Petersbourg〃　would　be　ashamed　of　some　of　the　metaphysical　arguments　of　Plato。　But　the　very　circumstances　which　retarded　the　growth　of　science　were　peculiarly　favourable　to　the　cultivation　of　eloquence。　　From　the　early　habit　of　taking　a　share　in　animated　discussion　the　intelligent　student　would　derive　that　readiness　of　resource；　that　copiousness　of　language；　and　that　knowledge　of　the　temper　and　understanding　of　an　audience；　which　are　far　more　valuable　to　an　orator　than　the　greatest　logical　powers。
  Horace　has　prettily　compared　poems　to　those　paintings　of　which　the　effect　varies　as　the　spectator　changes　his　stand。　　The　same　remark　applies　with　at　least　equal　justice　to　speeches。　　They　must　be　read　with　the　temper　of　those　to　whom　they　were　addressed；　or　they　must　necessarily　appear　to　offend　against　the　laws　of　taste　and　reason；　as　the　finest　picture；　seen　in　a　light　different　from　that　for　which　it　was　designed；　will　appear　fit　only　for　a　sign。　　This　is　perpetually　forgotten　by　those　who　criticise　oratory。　　Because　they　are　reading　at　leisure；　pausing　at　every　line；　reconsidering　every　argument；　they　forget　that　the　hearers　were　hurried　from　point　to　point　too　rapidly　to　detect　the　fallacies　through　which　they　were　conducted；　that　they　had　no　time　to　disentangle　sophisms；　or　to　notice　slight　inaccuracies　of　expression；　that　elaborate　excellence；　either　of　reasoning　or　of　language；　would　have　been　absolutely　thrown　away。　　To　recur　to　the　analogy　of　the　sister　art；　these　connoisseurs　examine　a　panorama　through　a　microscope；　and　quarrel　with　a　scene…painter　because　he　does　not　give　to　his　work　the　exquisite　finish　of　Gerard　Dow。
  Oratory　is　to　be　estimated　on　principles　different　from　those　which　are　applied　to　other　productions。　　Truth　is　the　object　of　philosophy　and　history。　　Truth　is　the　object　even　of　those　works　which　are　peculiarly　called　works　of　fiction；　but　which；　in　fact；　bear　the　same　relation　to　history　which　algebra　bears　to　arithmetic。　　The　merit　of　poetry；　in　its　wildest　forms；　still　consists　in　its　truth；truth　conveyed　to　the　understanding；　not　directly　by　the　words；　but　circuitously　by　means　of　imaginative　associations；　which　serve　as　its　conductors。　　The　object　of　oratory　alone　is　not　truth；　but　persuasion。　　The　admiration　of　the　multitude　does　not　make　Moore　a　greater　poet　than　Coleridge；　or　Beattie　a　greater　philosopher　than　Berkeley。　　But　the　criterion　of　eloquence　is　different。　　A　speaker　who　exhausts　the　whole　philosophy　of　a　question；　who　displays　every　grace　of　style；　yet　produces　no　effect　on　his　audience；　may　be　a　great　essayist；　a　great　statesman；　a　great　master　of　composition；　but　he　is　not　an　orator。　　If　he　miss　the　mark；　it　makes　no　difference　whether　he　have　taken　aim　too　high　or　too　low。
  The　effect　of　the　great　freedom　of　the　press　in　England　has　been；　in　a　great　measure；　to　destroy　this　distinction；　and　to　leave　among　us　little　of　what　I　call　Oratory　Proper。　　Our　legislators；　our　candidates；　on　great　occasions　even　our　advocates；　address　themselves　less　to　the　audience　than　to　the　reporters。　　They　think　less　of　the　few　hearers　than　of　the　innumerable　readers。　At　Athens　the　case　was　different；　there　the　only　object　of　the　speaker　was　immediate　conviction　and　persuasion。　　He；　therefore；　who　would　justly　appreciate　the　merit　of　the　Grecian　orators　should　place　himself；　as　nearly　as　possible；　in　the　situation　of　their　auditors：　　he　should　divest　himself　of　his　modern　feelings　and　acquirements；　and　make　the　prejudices　and　interests　of　the　Athenian　citizen　his　own。　　He　who　studies　their　works　in　this　spirit　will　find　that　many　of　those　things　which；　to　an　English　reader；　appear　to　be　blemishes；the　frequent　violation　of　those　excellent　rules　of　evidence　by　which　our　courts　of　law　are　regulated；the　introduction　of　extraneou