ew　nothing　about　the　atrocities　done　in　his　name：　　it　was　his　duty　to　know；　and　if　he　did　not　he　would　have　been　the　first　to　confess　that　he　had　failed　in　his　duty。　But　from　his　own　tone　in　speaking　of　the　Christians　it　is　clear　he　knew　them　only　from　calumny；　and　we　hear　of　no　measures　taken　even　to　secure　that　they　should　have　a　fair　hearing。　In　this　respect　Trajan　was　better　than　he。
  To　a　thoughtful　mind　such　a　religion　as　that　of　Rome　would　give　small　satisfaction。　　Its　legends　were　often　childish　or　impossible；　its　teaching　had　little　to　do　with　morality。　The　Roman　religion　was　in　fact　of　the　nature　of　a　bargain：　men　paid　certain　sacrifices　and　rites；　and　the　gods　granted　their　favour；　irrespective　of　right　or　wrong。　In　this　case　all　devout　souls　were　thrown　back　upon　philosophy；　as　they　had　been；　though　to　a　less　extent；　in　Greece。　There　were　under　the　early　empire　two　rival　schools　which　practically　divided　the　field　between　them；　Stoicism　and　Epicureanism。　The　ideal　set　before　each　was　nominally　much　the　same。　The　Stoics　aspired　to　the　repression　of　all　emotion；　and　the　Epicureans　to　freedom　from　all　disturbance；　yet　in　the　upshot　the　one　has　become　a　synonym　of　stubborn　endurance；　the　other　for　unbridled　licence。　　With　Epicureanism　we　have　nothing　to　do　now；　but　it　will　be　worth　while　to　sketch　the　history　and　tenets　of　the　Stoic　sect。　　Zeno；　the　founder　of　Stoicism；　was　born　in　Cyprus　at　some　date　unknown；　but　his　life　may　be　said　roughly　to　be　between　the　years　350　and　250　B。C。　Cyprus　has　been　from　time　immemorial　a　meeting…place　of　the　East　and　West；　and　although　we　cannot　grant　any　importance　to　a　possible　strain　of　Phoenician　blood　in　him　（for　the　Phoenicians　were　no　philosophers）；　yet　it　is　quite　likely　that　through　Asia　Minor　he　may　have　come　in　touch　with　the　Far　East。　He　studied　under　the　cynic　Crates；　but　he　did　not　neglect　other　philosophical　systems。　　After　many　years'　study　he　opened　his　own　school　in　a　colonnade　in　Athens　called　the　Painted　Porch；　or　Stoa；　which　gave　the　Stoics　their　name。　　Next　to　Zeno；　the　School　of　the　Porch　owes　most　to　Chrysippus　（280207　b。c。）；　who　organised　Stoicism　into　a　system。　　Of　him　it　was　said；　'But　for　Chrysippus；　there　had　been　no　Porch。'
  The　Stoics　regarded　speculation　as　a　means　to　an　end　and　that　end　was；　as　Zeno　put　it；　to　live　consistently　omologonuenws　zhn　or　as　it　was　later　explained；　to　live　in　conformity　with　nature。　This　conforming　of　the　life　to　nature　oralogoumenwz　th　fusei　zhn。　was　the　Stoic　idea　of　Virtue。
  This　dictum　might　easily　be　taken　to　mean　that　virtue　consists　in　yielding　to　each　natural　impulse；　but　that　was　very　far　from　the　Stoic　meaning。　In　order　to　live　in　accord　with　nature；　it　is　necessary　to　know　what　nature　is；　and　to　this　end　a　threefold　division　of　philosophy　is　madeinto　Physics；　dealing　with　the　universe　and　its　laws；　the　problems　of　divine　government　and　teleology；　Logic；　which　trains　the　mind　to　discern　true　from　false；　and　Ethics；　which　applies　the　knowledge　thus　gained　and　tested　to　practical　life。　　The　Stoic　system　of　physics　was　materialism　with　an　infusion　of　pantheism。　In　contradiction　to　Plato's　view　that　the　Ideas；　or　Prototypes；　of　phenomena　alone　really　exist；　the　Stoics　held　that　material　objects　alone　existed；　but　immanent　in　the　material　universe　was　a　spiritual　force　which　acted　through　them；　manifesting　itself　under　many　forms；　as　fire；　aether；　spirit；　soul；　reason；　the　ruling　principle。
  The　universe；　then；　is　God；　of　whom　the　popular　gods　are　manifestations；　while　legends　and　myths　are　allegorical。　The　soul　of　man　is　thus　an　emanation　from　the　godhead；　into　whom　it　will　eventually　be　re…absorbed。　The　divine　ruling　principle　makes　all　things　work　together　for　good；　but　for　the　good　of　the　whole。　　The　highest　good　of　man　is　consciously　to　work　with　God　for　the　common　good；　and　this　is　the　sense　in　which　the　Stoic　tried　to　live　in　accord　with　nature。　In　the　individual　it　is　virtue　alone　which　enables　him　to　do　this；　as　Providence　rules　the　universe；　so　virtue　in　the　soul　must　rule　man。
  In　Logic；　the　Stoic　system　is　noteworthy　for　their　theory　as　to　the　test　of　truth；　the　Criterion。　　They　compared　the　new…born　soul　to　a　sheet　of　paper　ready　for　writing。　Upon　this　the　senses　write　their　impressions；　fantasias　and　by　experience　of　a　number　of　these　the　soul　unconsciously　conceives　general　notions　koinai　eunoiai　or　anticipations。　prolhyeis　When　the　impression　was　such　as　to　be　irresistible　it　was　called　（katalnptikh　fantasia）　one　that　holds　fast；　or　as　they　explained　it；　one　proceeding　from　truth。　Ideas　and　inferences　artificially　produced　by　deduction　or　the　like　were　tested　by　this　'holding　perception。'　Of　the　Ethical　application　I　have　already　spoken。　The　highest　good　was　the　virtuous　life。　　Virtue　alone　is　happiness；　and　vice　is　unhappiness。　　Carrying　this　theory　to　its　extreme；　the　Stoic　said　that　there　could　be　no　gradations　between　virtue　and　vice；　though　of　course　each　has　its　special　manifestations。　Moreover；　nothing　is　good　but　virtue；　and　nothing　but　vice　is　bad。　Those　outside　things　which　are　commonly　called　good　or　bad；　such　as　health　and　sickness；　wealth　and　poverty；　pleasure　and　pain；　are　to　him　indifferent　adiofora。　　All　these　things　are　merely　the　sphere　in　which　virtue　may　act。　　The　ideal　Wise　Man　is　sufficient　unto　himself　in　all　things；　autarkhs　and　knowing　these　truths；　he　will　be　happy　even　when　stretched　upon　the　rack。　It　is　probable　that　no　Stoic　claimed　for　himself　that　he　was　this　Wise　Man；　but　that　each　strove　after　it　as　an　ideal　much　as　the　Christian　strives　after　a　likeness　to　Christ。　The　exaggeration　in　this　statement　was；　however；　so　obvious；　that　the　later　Stoics　were　driven　to　make　a　further　subdivision　of　things　indifferent　into　what　is　preferable　（prohgmena）　and　what　is　undesirable。　　They　also　held　that　for　him　who　had　not　attained　to　the　perfect　wisdom；　certain　actions　were　proper。　（kaqhkonta）　These　were　neither　virtuous　nor　vicious；　but；　like　the　indifferent　things；　held　a　middle　place。　Two　points　in　the　Stoic　system　deserve　special　mention。　One　is　a　careful　distinction　between　things　which　are　in　our　power　and　things　which　are　not。　　Desire　and　dislike；　opinion　and　affection；　are　within　the　power　of　the　will；　whereas　health；　wealth；　honour；　and　other　such　are　general1y　not　so。　The　Stoic　was　called　upon　to　control　his　desires　and　affections；　and　to　guide　his　opinion；　to　bring　his　whole　being　under　the　sway　of　the　will　or　leading　principle；　just　as　the　universe　is　guided　and　governed　by　divine　Providence。　　This　is　a　special　application　of　the　favourite　Greek　virtue　of　moderation；　（swfrosuum）　and　has　also　its　parallel　in　Christian　ethics。　The　second　point　is　a　strong　insistence　on　the　unity　of　the　universe；　and　on　man's　duty　as　part　of　a　great　whole。　Public　spirit　was　the　most　splendid　political　virtue　of　the　ancient　world；　and　it　is　here　made　cosmopolitan。　It　is　again　instructive　to　note　that　Christian　sages　insisted　on　the　same　thing。　　Christians　are　taught　that　they　are　members　of　a　worldwide　brotherhood；　where　is　neither　Greek　nor　Hebrew；　bond　nor　free　and　that　they　live　their　lives　as　fellow…workers　with　God。
  Such　is　the　system　which　underlies　the　Meditations　of　Marcus　Aurelius。　Some　knowledge　of　it　is　necessary　to　the　right　understanding　of　the　book；　but　for　us　the　chief　interest　lies　elsewhere。　We　do　not　come　to　Marcus　Aurelius　for　a　treatise　on　Stoicism。　He　is　no　head　of　a　school　to　lay　down　a　body　of　doctrine　for　students；　he　does　not　even　contemplate　that　others　should　read　what　he　writes。　His　philosophy　is　not　an　eager　intellectual　inquiry；　but　more　what　we　should　call　religious　feeling。　　The　uncompromising　stiffness　of　Zeno　or　Chrysippus　is　softened　and　transformed　by　passing　through　a　nature　reverent　and　tolerant；　gentle　and　free　from　guile；　the　grim　resignation　which　made　life　possible　to　the　Stoic　sage　becomes　in　him　almost　a　mood　of　aspiration。　His　book　records　the　innermost　thoughts　of　his　heart；　set　down　to　ease　it；　with　such　moral　maxims　and　reflections　as　may　help　him　to　bear　the　burden　of　duty　and　the　countless　annoyances　of　a　busy　life。
  It　is　instructive　to　compare　the　Meditations　with　another　famous　book；　the　Imitation　of　Christ。　　There　is　the　same　ideal　of　self…control　in　both。　　It　should　be　a　man's　task；　says　the　Imitation；　'to　overcome　himself；　and　every　day　to　be　stronger　than　himself。'　　'In　withstanding　of　the　passions　standeth　very　peace　of　heart。'　　'Let　us　set　the　axe　to　the　root；　that　we　being　purged　of　our　passions　may　have　a　peaceable　mind。'　To　this　end　there　must　be　continual　self…examination。　'If　thou　may　not　continually　gather　thyself　together；　namely　sometimes　do　it；　at　least　once　a　day；　the　morning　or　the　evening。　In　the　morning　purpose；　in　the　evening　discuss　the　manner；　what　thou　hast　been　this　day；　in　word；　work；　and　thought。'　But　while　the　Roman's　temper　is　a　modest　self…reliance；　the　Christian　aims　at　a　more　passive　mood；　humbleness　and　meekness；　and　reliance　on　the　presence　and　personal　friendship　of　God。　The　Roman　scrutinises　his　faults　with　severity；　but　without　the　self…contempt　which　makes　the　Christian　'vile　in　his　own　sight。'　The　Christian；　like　the　Roman；　bids　'study　to　withdraw　thine　heart　from　the　love　of　things　visible'；　but　it　is