emigrants　pouring　into　the　Northwest；　a　heterogeneous　multitude　which　made　the　Lake　Erie　boats　seem；　to　one　traveler　at　least；　filled　with　〃men；　women　and　children；　beds；　cradles；　kettles；　and　frying　pans。〃　These　craft　were　built　after　the　pattern　of　the　Walk…in…the…Waterside…wheelers　with　a　steering　wheel　at　the　stern。　No　cabins　or　staterooms　on　deck　were　provided；　and　amid　such　freight　as　the　thriving　young　towns　provided　were　to　be　found　the　twenty　or　thirty　cords　of　wood　which　the　engines　required　as　fuel。
  The　second　period　of　steamboating　began　with　the　opening　of　the　Ohio　Canal　and　the　Welland　Canal　about　1834　and　extended　another　fifteen　years　to　the　middle　of　the　century；　when　it　underwent　a　transformation　owing　to　the　great　development　of　Chicago；　the　completion　of　the　Illinois　and　Michigan　and　St。　Mary's　canals；　and　the　new　railways。　This　second　period　was　marked　by　the　building　of　such　steamers　as　the　Michigan；　the　Great　Western；　and　the　Illinois。　These　were　the　first　boats　with　an　upper　cabin　and　were　looked　upon　with　marked　suspicion　by　those　best　acquainted　with　the　severe　storms　upon　the　Great　Lakes。　The　Michigan；　of　475　tons；　built　by　Oliver　Newberry　at　Detroit　in　1833；　is　said　to　have　been　the　first　ship　of　this　type。　These　boats　proved　their　seaworthiness　and　caused　a　revolution　in　the　construction　of　lake　craft。　Later　in　this　period　freight　transportation　saw　an　equally　radical　advance　with　the　building　of　the　first　propellers。　The　sloop…rigged　Vandalia；　built　by　Sylvester　Doolittle　at　Oswego　on　Lake　Ontario　in　1842；　was　the　first　of　the　propeller　type　and　was　soon　followed　by　the　Hercules；　the　Samson；　and　the　Detroit。
  One　very　great　handicap　in　lake　commerce　up　to　this　time　had　been　the　lack　of　harbors。　Detroit　alone　of　the　lake　ports　was　distinctly　favored　in　this　respect。　The　harbors　of　Buffalo；　Cleveland；　Milwaukee；　and　Chicago　were　improved　slowly；　but　it　was　not　until　the　great　Chicago　convention　of　1846　that　the　nation's　attention　was　focused　on　the　needs　of　Western　rivers　and　harbors；　and　there　dawned　a　new　era　of　lighthouses　and　buoys；　breakwaters　and　piers；　and　dredged　channels。　Another　handicap　to　the　volume　of　business　which　the　lake　boats　handled　in　the　period　just　previous　to　the　Civil　War　was　the　inadequacy　of　the　feeders；　the　roads；　riverways；　and　canals。　The　Erie　Canal　was　declared　too　small　almost　before　the　cries　of　its　virulent　opponents　had　died　away；　and　the　enlargement　of　its　locks　was　soon　undertaken。　The　same　thing　proved　true　of　the　Ohio　and　Illinois　canals。　The　failure　of　the　Welland　Canal　was　similarly　a　very　serious　handicap。　Although　its　locks　were　enlarged　in　1841；　it　was　found　by　1850　that　despite　the　improvements　it　could　not　admit　more　than　about　one…third　of　the　grain…carrying　boats；　while　only　one　in　four　of　the　new　propellers　could　enter　its　locks。
  As　late　as　the　middle　forties　men　did　not　in　the　least　grasp　the　commercial　situation　which　now　confronted　the　Northwest　nor　could　they　foresee　that　the　land　behind　the　Great　Lakes　was　about　to　deluge　the　country　with　an　output　of　produce　and　manufactures　of　which　the　roads；　canals；　ships；　wharfs；　or　warehouses　in　existence　could　handle　not　a　tenth　part。　They　did　not　yet　understand　thatthis　trade　was　to　become　national。　It　was　well　on　in　the　forties　before　the　Galena　lead　mines；　for　instance；　were　given　up　as　the　terminal　of　the　Illinois　Central　Railroad　and　the　main　line　was　directed　to　Chicago。　The　middle　of　the　century　was　reached　before　the　Lake　Shore　was　considered　at　Cleveland　or　Chicago　as　important　commercially　as　the　neighboring　portage　paths　which　by　the　Ordinance　of　1787　had　been　created　〃common　highways　forever　free。〃　The　idea　of　joining　Buffalo；　Cleveland；　and　Chicago　with　the　interioran　idea　as　old　as　the　Indian　trails　thitherstill　dominated　men's　minds　even　in　the　early　part　of　the　railroad　epoch。　Chicago　desired　to　be　connected　with　Cairo；　the　ice…free　port　on　the　Mississippi；　and　Cleveland　was　eager　to　be　joined　to　Columbus　and　Cincinnati。　The　enthusiastic　railway　promoters　of　Ohio；　Indiana；　and　Illinois　drew　splendid　plans　for　uniting　all　parts　of　those　States　by　railway　lines；　but　the　strategic　position　of　the　cities　on　the　continental　alignment　from　New　York　to　the　Pacific　by　way　of　South　Pass　never　came　within　their　horizon。　The　ten　million　dollar　Illinois　scheme　did　not　even　contemplate　a　railway　running　eastward　from　Chicago。　But　the　future　of　the　commerce　of　the　Great　Lakes　depended　absolutely　upon　this　development。　There　was　no　hope　of　any　canals　being　able　to　handle　the　traffic　of　the　mighty　empire　which　was　now　awake　and　fully　conscious　of　its　power。　The　solution　lay　in　joining　the　cities　to　each　other　and　to　the　Atlantic　world　markets　by　iron　rails　running　east　and　west。
  This　railroad　expansion　is　what　makes　the　last　decade　before　the　Civil　War　such　a　remarkable　series　of　years　in　the　West。　In　the　half　decade；　1850…55；　the　Baltimore　and　Ohio　and　Pennsylvania　railways　reached　the　Ohio　River；　the　links　of　the　present　Lake　Shore　system　between　Buffalo　and　Chicago　by　way　of　Cleveland　and　Toledo　were　constructed；　and　the　Pennsylvania　line　was　put　through　from　Pittsburgh　to　Chicago。　The　place　of　the　lake　country　on　the　continental　alignment　and　the　imperial　situation　of　Chicago；　and　later　of　Omaha；　came　to　be　realized。　The　new　view　transformed　men's　conceptions　of　every　port　on　the　Great　Lakes　in　the　chain　from　Buffalo　to　Chicago。　At　a　dozen　southern　ports　on　Ontario；　Erie；　Huron；　and　Michigan；　commerce　now　touched　the　swiftest　and　most　economical　means　of　transcontinental　traffic。　This　development　culminated　in　the　miracle　we　call　Chicago。　In　1847　not　a　line　of　rail　entered　the　town；　its　population　then　numbered　about　twenty…five　thousand　and　its　property　valuation　approximated　seven　millions。　Ten　years　later　four　thousand　miles　of　railway　connected　with　all　four　points　of　the　compass　a　city　of　nearly　one　hundred　thousand　people；　and　property　valuation　had　increased　five　hundred　per　cent。　The　growth　of　Buffalo；　Cleveland；　and　Detroit　during　this　period　was　also　phenomenal。
  When　the　crisis　of　1861　came；　the　service　performed　by　the　Walk…in…the…Water　and　her　successors　was　seen　in　its　true　light。　The　Great　Lakes　as　avenues　of　migration　had　played　a　providential　part　in　filling　a　northern　empire　with　a　proud　and　loyal　race；　from　farm　and　factory　regiment　on　regiment　marched　forth　to　fight　for　unity；　from　fields　without　number　produce　to　sustain　a　nation　on　trial　poured　forth　in　abundance；　enormous　quantities　of　iron　were　at　hand　for　the　casting　of　cannon　and　cannon　balls；　and；　finally；　pathways　of　water　and　steel　were　in　readiness　in　the　nick　of　time　to　carry　these　resources　where　they　would　count　tremendously　in　the　four　long　years　of　conflict。
  CHAPTER　XI。　The　Steamboat　And　The　West
  Two　great　fields　of　service　lay　open　before　those　who　were　to　achieve　by　steam　the　mastery　of　the　inland　waterways。　On　the　one　hand　the　cotton　kingdom　of　the　South；　now　demanding　great　stores　of　manufactured　goods；　produce；　and　machinery；　was　waiting　to　be　linked　to　the　valleys　and　industrial　cities　of　the　Middle　West；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　along　those　great　eastward　and　westward　rivers；　the　Ohio　and　Missouri；　lay　the　commerce　of　the　prairies　and　the　Great　Plains。　But　before　the　steamboat　could　serve　the　inland　commerce　of　the　West；　it　had　to　be　constructed　on　new　lines。　The　craft　brought　from　the　seaboard　were　of　too　deep　draft　to　navigate　shallow　streams　which　ran　through　this　more　level　country。
  The　task　of　constructing　a　great　inland　river　marine　to　play　the　dual　role　of　serving　the　cotton　empire　and　of　extending　American　migration　and　commerce　into　the　trans…Mississippi　region　was　solved　by　Henry　Shreve　when　he　built　the　Washington　at　Wheeling　in　1816。　Shreve　was　the　American　John　Hawkins。　Hawkins；　that　sturdy　old　admiral　of　Elizabethan　days；　took　the　English　ship　of　his　time；　trimmed　down　the　high　stern　and　poop　decks；　and　cut　away　the　deep…lying　prow　and　stern；　after　the　fashion　of　our　modern　cup　defenders；　and　in　a　day　gave　England　the　key　to　sea　mastery　in　the　shape　of　a　new　ship　that　would　take　sail　and　answer　her　rudder　beyond　anything　the　maritime　world　until　then　had　known。　Shreve；　like　Hawkins；　flagrantly　ignoring　the　conventional　wisdom　of　his　day　and　craft；　built　the　Washington　to　sail　on　the　water　instead　of　in　it；　doing　away　altogether　with　a　hold　and　supplying　an　upper　deck　in　its　place。
  To　few　inventors；　indeed；　does　America　owe　a　greater　debt　of　thanks　than　to　this　Ohio　River　shipbuilder。　A　dozen　men　were　on　the　way　to　produce　a　Clermont　had　Fulton　failed；　but　Shreve　had　no　rival　in　his　plan　to　build　a　flat…bottomed　steamboat。　The　remarkable　success　of　his　design　is　attested　by　the　fact　that　in　two　decades　the　boats　built　on　his　model　outweighed　in　tonnage　all　the　ships　of　the　Atlantic　seaboard　and　Great　Lakes　combined。　Immediately　the　Ohio　became　in　effect　the　western　extension　of　the　great　national　highway　and　opened　an　easy　pathway　for　immigration　to　the　eastern　as　well　as　the　western　lands　of　the　Mississippi　Basin。　The　story　goes　that　an　old　phlegmatic　negro　watched　the　approach　of　one　of　the　first　steamboats　to　the　wharf　of　a　Southern　city。　Like　many　others；　he　had　doubted　the　pract