in　the　charters。　Thus　new　problems　confronted　the　various　legislatures；　and　interesting　principles　of　regulation　were　now　established。　In　most　cases　companies　were　allowed；　on　producing　their　books　of　receipts　and　expenditures；　to　increase　their　tolls　until　they　obtained　a　profit　of　six　per　cent　on　the　investment；　though　in　a　number　of　cases　nine　per　cent　was　permitted。　When　revenues　increased　beyond　the　six　per　cent　mark；　however；　the　tendency　was　to　reduce　tolls　or　to　use　the　extra　profit　to　purchase　the　stock　for　the　State；　with　the　expectation　of　ultimately　abolishing　tollgates　entirely。　The　theories　of　state　regulation　of　corporations　and　the　obligations　of　public　carriers；　extending　even　to　the　compensation　of　workmen　in　case　of　accident；　were　developed　to　a　considerable　degree　in　this　turnpike　era；　but；　on　the　other　hand；　the　principle　of　permitting　fair　profit　to　corporations　upon　public　examination　of　their　accounts　was　also　recognized。
  The　stone　roads；　which　were　passable　at　all　seasons；　brought　a　new　era　in　correspondence　and　business。　Lines　of　stages　and　wagons；　as　well　known　at　that　time　as　are　the　great　railways　of　today；　plied　the　new　thoroughfares；　provided　some　of　the　comforts　of　travel；　and　assured　the　safer　and　more　rapid　delivery　of　goods。　This　period　is　sometimes　known　in　American　history　as　〃The　Era　of　Good　Feeling〃　and　the　turnpike　contributed　in　no　small　degree　to　make　the　phrase　applicable　not　only　to　the　domain　of　politics　but　to　all　the　relations　of　social　and　commercial　life。
  While　road　building　in　the　East　gives　a　clear　picture　of　the　rise　and　growth　of　commerce　and　trade　in　that　section；　it　is　to　the　rivers　of　the　trans…Alleghany　country　that　we　must　look　for　a　corresponding　picture　in　this　early　period。　The　canoe　and　pirogue　could　handle　the　packs　and　kegs　brought　westward　by　the　files　of　Indian　ponies；　but　the　heavy　loads　of　the　Conestoga　wagons　demanded　stancher　craft。　The　flatboat　and　barge　therefore　served　the　West　and　its　commerce　as　the　Conestoga　and　turnpike　served　the　East。
  CHAPTER　V。　The　Flatboat　Age
  In　the　early　twenties　of　the　last　century　one　of　the　popular　songs　of　the　day　was　〃The　Hunters　of　Kentucky。〃　Written　by　Samuel　Woodworth；　the　author　of　〃The　Old　Oaken　Bucket；〃　it　had　originally　been　printed　in　the　New　York　Mirror　but　had　come　into　the　hands　of　an　actor　named　Ludlow；　who　was　playing　in　the　old　French　theater　in　New　Orleans。　The　poem　chants　the　praises　of　the　Kentucky　riflemen　who　fought　with　Jackson　at　New　Orleans　and　indubitably　proved
  That　every　man　was　half　a　horse　And　half　an　alligator。
  Ludlow　knew　his　audience　and　he　saw　his　chance。　Setting　the　words　to　Risk's　tune；　〃Love　Laughs〃　at　Locksmiths；　donning　the　costume　of　a　Western　riverman；　and　arming　himself　with　a　long　〃squirrel〃　rifle；　he　presented　himself　before　the　house。　The　rivermen　who　filled　the　pit　received　him；　it　is　related；　with　〃a　prolonged　whoop；　or　howl；　such　as　Indians　give　when　they　are　especially　pleased。〃　And　to　these　sturdy　men　the　words　of　his　song　made　a　strong　appeal：
  We　are　a　hardy；　freeborn　race；　　Each　man　to　fear　a　stranger；　Whate'er　the　game；　we　join　in　chase；　　Despising　toil　and　danger；　And　if　a　daring　foe　annoys；　　No　matter　what　his　force　is；　We'll　show　him　that　Kentucky　boys　　Are　Alligator…horses。
  The　title　〃alligator…horse；〃　of　which　Western　rivermen　were　very　proud；　carried　with　it　a　suggestion　of　amphibious　strength　that　made　it　both　apt　and　figuratively　accurate。　On　all　the　American　rivers；　east　and　west；　a　lusty　crew；　collected　from　the　waning　Indian　trade　and　the　disbanded　pioneer　armies；　found　work　to　its　taste　in　poling　the　long　keel　boats；　〃corralling〃　the　bulky　bargesthat　is；　towing　them　by　pulling　on　a　line　attached　to　the　shoreor　steering　the　〃broadhorns〃　or　flatboats　that　transported　the　first　heavy　inland　river　cargoes。　Like　longshoremen　of　all　ages；　the　American　riverman　was　as　rough　as　the　work　which　calloused　his　hands　and　transformed　his　muscles　into　bands　of　tempered　steel。　Like　all　men　given　to　hard　but　intermittent　labor；　he　employed　his　intervals　of　leisure　in　coarse　and　brutal　recreation。　Their　roistering　exploits；　indeed；　have　made　these　rivermen　almost　better　known　at　play　than　at　work。　One　of　them；　the　notorious　Mike　Fink；　known　as　〃the　Snag〃　on　the　Mississippi　and　as　the　〃Snapping　Turtle〃　on　the　Ohio；　has　left　the　record；　not　that　he　could　load　a　keel　boat　in　a　certain　length　of　time；　or　lift　a　barrel　of　whiskey　with　one　arm；　or　that　no　tumultuous　current　had　ever　compelled　him　to　back　water；　but　that　he　could　〃out…run；　out…hop；　out…jump；　throw　down；　drag　out；　and　lick　any　man　in　the　country；〃　and　that　he　was　〃a　Salt　River　roarer。〃
  Such　men　and　the　craft　they　handled　were　known　on　the　Atlantic　rivers；　but　it　was　on　the　Mississippi　and　its　branches；　especially　the　Ohio；　that　they　played　their　most　important　part　in　the　history　of　American　inland　commerce。　Before　the　beginning　of　the　nineteenth　century　wagons　and　Conestogas　were　bringing　great　loads　of　merchandise　to　such　points　on　the　headwaters　as　Brownsville；　Pittsburgh；　and　Wheeling。　As　early　as　1782；　we　are　told；　Jacob　Yoder；　a　Pennsylvania　German；　set　sail　from　the　Monongahela　country　with　the　first　flatboat　to　descend　the　Ohio　and　Mississippi。　As　the　years　passed；　the　number　of　such　craft　grew　constantly　larger。　The　custom　of　fixing　the　widespreading　horns　of　cattle　on　the　prow　gave　these　boats　the　alternative　name　of　〃broadhorns；〃　but　no　accurate　classification　can　be　made　of　the　various　kinds　of　craft　engaged　in　this　vast　traffic。　Everything　that　would　float；　from　rough　rafts　to　finished　barges；　was　commandeered　into　service；　and　what　was　found　unsuitable　for　the　strenuous　purposes　of　commercial　transportation　was　palmed　off　whenever　possible　on　unsuspecting　emigrants　en　route　to　the　lands　of　promise　beyond。
  Flour；　salt；　iron；　cider　and　peach　brandy　were　staple　products　of　the　Ohio　country　which　the　South　desired。　In　return　they　shipped　molasses；　sugar；　coffee；　lead；　and　hides　upon　the　few　keel　boats　which　crept　upstream　or　the　blundering　barges　which　were　propelled　northward　by　means　of　oar；　sail；　and　cordelle。　It　was　not；　however；　until　the　nineteenth　century　that　the　young　West　was　producing　any　considerable　quantity　of　manufactured　goods。　Though　the　town　of　Pittsburgh　had　been　laid　out　in　1764；　by　the　end　of　the　Revolution　it　was　still　little　more　than　a　collection　of　huts　about　a　fort。　A　notable　amount　of　local　trade　was　carried　on；　but　the　expense　of　transportation　was　very　high　even　after　wagons　began　crossing　the　Alleghanies。　For　example；　the　cost　from　Philadelphia　and　Baltimore　was　given　by　Arthur　Lee；　a　member　of　Congress；　in　1784　as　forty…five　shillings　a　hundredweight；　and　a　few　months　later　it　is　quoted　at　sixpence　a　pound　when　Johann　D。　Schoph　crossed　the　mountains　in　a　chaisea　feat　〃which　till　now　had　been　considered　quite　impossible。〃　Opinions　differed　widely　as　to　the　future　of　the　little　town　of　five　hundred　inhabitants。　The　important　product　of　the　region　at　first　was　Monongahela　flour　which　long　held　a　high　place　in　the　New　Orleans　market。　Coal　was　being　mined　as　early　as　1796　and　was　worth　locally　threepence　halfpenny　a　bushel；　though　within　seven　years　it　was　being　sold　at　Philadelphia　at　thirty…seven　and　a　half　cents　a　bushel。　The　fur　trade　with　the　Illinois　country　grew　less　important　as　the　century　came　to　its　close；　but　Maynard　and　Morrison；　cooperating　with　Guy　Bryan　at　Philadelphia；　sent　a　barge　laden　with　merchandise　to　Illinois　annually　between　1790　and　1796；　which　returned　each　season　with　a　cargo　of　skins　and　furs。　Pittsburgh　was　thus　a　distributing　center　of　some　importance；　but　the　fact　that　no　drayman　or　warehouse　was　to　be　found　in　the　town　at　this　time　is　a　significant　commentary　on　the　undeveloped　state　of　its　commerce　and　manufacture。
  After　Wayne's　victory　at　the　battle　of　the　Fallen　Timber　in　1794　and　the　signing　of　the　Treaty　of　Greenville　in　1795；　which　ended　the　earlier　Indian　wars　of　the　Old　Northwest　and　opened　for　settlement　the　country　beyond　the　Ohio；　a　great　migration　followed　into　Ohio；　Indiana；　and　Kentucky；　and　the　commercial　activity　of　Pittsburgh　rapidly　increased。　By　1800　a　score　of　profitable　industries　had　arisen；　and　by　1803　the　first　bar…iron　foundry　was；　to　quote　the　advertisement　of　its　owner；　〃sufficiently　upheld　by　the　hand　of　the　Almighty〃　to　supply　in　part　the　demand　for　iron　and　castings。　Glass　factories　were　established；　and　ropewalks；　sail　lofts；　boatyards；　anchor　smithies；　and　brickyards；　were　soon　ready　to　supply　the　rapidly　increasing　demands　of　the　infant　cities　and　the　countryside　on　the　lower　Ohio。　When　the　new　century　arrived　the　Pittsburgh　district　had　a　population　of　upwards　of　two　thousand。
  One　by　one　the　other　important　centers　of　trade　in　the　great　valley　beyond　began　to　show　evidences　of　life。　Marietta；　Ohio；　founded　in　1788　by　Revolutionary　officers　from　New　England；　became　the　metropolis　of　the　rich　Muskingum　River　district；　which　was　presently　sending　many　flatboats　southward。　Cincinnati　was　founded　in　the　same　year　as　Marietta；　with　the　building　of　Fort　Washington　and　the　formal　organization　of　Hamilton　County。　The　soil　of　the　Miami　country　was　as　〃mellow　as　an　ash　heap〃　and　in　the　first　four　months