n　each　county　roads　forty　feet　wide　to　the　church　and　to　the　courthouse。　In　1700；　Pennsylvania　turned　her　local　roads　over　to　the　county　justices；　put　the　King's　highway　and　the　main　public　roads　under　the　care　of　the　governor　and　his　council；　and　ordered　each　county　to　erect　bridges　over　its　streams。
  The　word　〃roadmaking〃　was　capable　of　several　interpretations。　In　general；　it　meant　outlining　the　course　for　the　new　thoroughfare；　clearing　away　fallen　timber；　blazing　or　notching　the　trees　so　that　the　traveler　might　not　miss　the　track；　and　building　bridges　or　laying　logs　〃over　all　the　marshy；　swampy；　and　difficult　dirty　places。〃
  The　streams　proved　serious　obstacles　to　early　traffic。　It　has　been　shown　already　that　the　earliest　routes　of　animal　or　man　sought　the　watersheds；　the　trails　therefore　usually　encountered　one　stream　near　its　junction　with　another。　At　first；　of　course；　fording　was　the　common　method　of　crossing　water；　and　the　most　advantageous　fording　places　were　generally　found　near　the　mouths　of　tributary　streams；　where　bars　and　islands　are　frequently　formed　and　where　the　water　is　consequently　shallow。　When　ferries　began　to　be　used；　they　were　usually　situated　just　above　or　below　the　fords；　but　when　the　bridge　succeeded　the　ferry；　the　primitive　bridge　builder　went　back　to　the　old　fording　place　in　order　to　take　advantage　of　the　shallower　water；　bars；　and　islands。　With　the　advent　of　improved　engineering；　the　character　of　river　banks　and　currents　was　more　frequently　taken　into　consideration　in　choosing　a　site　for　a　bridge　than　was　the　case　in　the　olden　times；　but　despite　this　fact　the　bridges　of　today；　generally　speaking；　span　the　rivers　where　the　deer　or　the　buffalo　splashed　his　way　across　centuries　ago。
  On　the　broader　streams；　where　fording　was　impossible　and　traffic　was　perforce　carried　by　ferry；　the　canoe　and　the　keel　boat　of　the　earliest　days　gave　way　in　time　to　the　ordinary　〃flat〃　or　barge。　At　first　the　obligation　of　the　ferryman　to　the　public；　though　recognized　by　English　law；　was　ignored　in　America　by　legislators　and　monopolists　alike。　Men　obtained　the　land　on　both　sides　of　the　rivers　at　the　crossing　places　and　served　the　public　only　at　their　own　convenience　and　at　their　own　charges。　In　many　cases；　to　encourage　the　opening　of　roads　or　of　ferries；　national　and　state　authorities　made　grants　of　land　on　the　same　principle　followed　in　later　days　in　the　case　of　Western　railroads。　Such；　for　instance；　was　the　grant　to　Ebenezer　Zane；　at　Zanesville；　Lancaster；　and　Chillicothe　in　the　Northwest　Territory。　These　monopolies　sometimes　were　extremely　profitable：　a　descendant　of　the　owners　of　the　famous　Ingles　ferry　across　New　River；　on　the　Wilderness　Road　to　Kentucky；　is　responsible　for　the　statement　that　in　the　heyday　of　travel　to　the　Southwest　the　privilege　was　worth　from　10；000　to　15；000　annually　to　the　family。　But　as　local　governments　became　more　efficient；　monopolies　were　abolished　and　the　collection　of　tolls　was　taken　over　by　the　authorities。　The　awakening　of　inland　trade　is　most　clearly　indicated　everywhere　by　the　action　of　assemblies　regarding　the　operation　of　ferries；　and　in　general；　by　the　beginning　of　the　eighteenth　century；　tolls　and　ferries　were　being　regulated　by　law。
  But　neither　roads　nor　ferries　were　of　themselves　sufficient　to　put　a　nation　on　wheels。　The　early　polite　society　of　the　settled　neighborhoods　traveled　in　horse　litters；　in　sedan　chairs；　or　on　horseback；　the　women　seated　on　pillions　or　cushions　behind　the　saddle　riders；　while　oxcarts　and　horse　barrows　brought　to　town　the　produce　of　the　outlying　farms。　Although　carts　and　rude　wagons　could　be　built　entirely　of　wood；　there　could　be　no　marked　advance　in　transportation　until　the　development　of　mining　in　certain　localities　reduced　the　price　of　iron。　With　the　increase　of　travel　and　trade；　the　old　world　coach　and　chaise　and　wain　came　into　use；　and　iron　for　tire　and　brace　became　an　imperative　necessity。　The　connection　between　the　production　of　iron　and　the　care　of　highways　was　recognized　by　legislation　as　early　as　1732；　when　Maryland　excused　men　and　slaves　in　the　ironworks　from　labor　on　the　public　roads；　though　by　the　middle　of　the　century　owners　of　ironworks　were　obliged　to　detail　one　man　out　of　every　ten　in　their　employ　for　such　work。
  While　the　coastwise　trade　between　the　colonies　was　still　preeminently　important　as　a　means　of　transporting　commodities；　by　the　beginning　of　the　eighteenth　century　the　land　routes　from　New　York　to　New　England；　from　New　York　across　New　Jersey　to　Philadelphia；　and　those　radiating　from　Philadelphia　in　every　direction；　were　coming　into　general　use。　The　date　of　the　opening　of　regular　freight　traffic　between　New　York　and　Philadelphia　is　set　by　the　reply　of　the　Governor　of　New　Jersey　in　1707　to　a　protest　against　monopolies　granted　on　one　of　the　old　widened　Indian　trails　between　Burlington　and　Amboy。　〃At　present；〃　he　says；　〃everybody　is　sure；　ONCE　A　FORTNIGHT；　to　have　an　opportunity　of　sending　any　quantity　of　goods；　great　or　small；　at　reasonable　rates；　without　being　in　danger　of　imposition；　and　the　sending　of　this　wagon　is　so　far　from　being　a　grievance　or　monopoly；　THAT　BY　THIS　MEANS　AND　NO　OTHER；　a　trade　has　been　carried　on　between　Philadelphia；　Burlington；　Amboy；　and　New　York；　which　was　never　known　before。〃
  The　long　Philadelphia　Road　from　the　Lancaster　region　into　the　Valley　of　Virginia；　by　way　of　Wadkins　on　the　Potomac；　was　used　by　German　and　Irish　traders　probably　as　early　as　1700。　In　1728　the　people　of　Maryland　were　petitioning　for　a　road　from　the　ford　of　the　Monocacy　to　the　home　of　Nathan　Wickham。　Four　years　later　Jost　Heydt；　leading　an　immigrant　party　southward；　broke　open　a　road　from　the　York　Barrens　toward　the　Potomac　two　miles　above　Harper's　Ferry。　This　avenue　by　way　of　the　Berkeley；　Staunton；　Watauga；　and　Greenbrier　regions　to　Tennessee　and　Kentuckywas　the　longest　and　most　important　in　America　during　the　Revolutionary　period。　The　Virginia　Assembly　in　1779　appointed　commissioners　to　view　this　route　and　to　report　on　the　advisability　of　making　it　a　wagon　road　all　the　way　to　Kentucky。　In　1795；　efforts　were　made　in　Kentucky　to　turn　the　Wilderness　Trail　into　a　wagon　road；　and　in　this　same　year　the　Kentucky　Legislature　passed　an　act　making　the　route　from　Crab　Orchard　to　Cumberland　Gap　a　wagon　road　thirty　feet　in　width。
  》From　Pennsylvania　and　from　Virginia　commerce　westward　bound　followed　in　the　main　the　army　roads　hewn　out　by　Braddock　and　Forbes　in　their　campaigns　against　Fort　Duquesne。　In　1755；　Braddock；　marching　from　Alexandria　by　way　of　Fort　Cumberland；　had　opened　a　passage　for　his　artillery　and　wagons　to　Laurel　Hill；　near　Uniontown；　Pennsylvania。　His　force　included　a　corps　of　seamen　equipped　with　block　and　tackle　to　raise　and　lower　his　wagons　in　the　steep　inclines　of　the　Alleghanies。　Three　years　later；　Forbes；　in　his　careful；　dogged　campaign；　followed　a　more　northerly　route。　Advancing　from　Philadelphia　and　Carlisle；　he　established　Fort　Bedford　and　Fort　Ligonier　as　bases　of　supply　and　broke　a　new　road　through　the　interminable　forest　which　clothed　the　rugged　mountain　ranges。　From　the　first　there　was　bitter　rivalry　between　these　two　routes；　and　the　young　Colonel　Washington　was　roundly　criticized　by　both　Forbes　and　Bouquet；　his　second　in　command；　for　his　partisan　effort　to　〃drive　me　down；〃　as　Forbes　phrased　it；　into　the　Virginia　or　Braddock's　Road。　This　rivalry　between　the　two　routes　continued　when　the　destruction　of　the　French　power　over　the　roads　in　the　interior　threw　open　to　　Pennsylvania　and　her　southern　neighbors　alike　the　lucrative　　trade　of　the　Ohio　country。
  》From　the　journals　of　the　time　may　be　caught　faint　glimpses　of　the　toils　and　dangers　of　travel　through　these　wild　hill　regions。　Let　the　traveler　of　today；　as　he　follows　the　track　that　once　was　Braddock's　Road；　picture　the　scene　of　that　earlier　time　when；　in　the　face　of　every　natural　obstacle；　the　army　toiled　across　the　mountain　chains。　Where　the　earth　in　yonder　ravine　is　whipped　to　a　black　froth；　the　engineers　have　thrown　down　the　timber　cut　in　widening　the　trail　and　have　constructed　a　corduroy　bridge；　or　rather　a　loose　raft　on　a　sea　of　muck。　The　wreck　of　the　last　wagon　which　tried　to　pass　gives　some　additional　safety　to　the　next。　Already　the　stench　from　the　horse　killed　in　the　accident　deadens　the　heavy；　heated　air　of　the　forest。　The　sailors；　stripped　to　the　waist；　are　ready　with　ropes　and　tackle　to　let　the　next　wagon　down　the　incline；　the　pulleys　creak；　the　ropes　groan。　The　horses；　weak　and　terror…stricken；　plunge　and　rear；　in　the　final　crash　to　the　level　the　leg　of　the　wheel　horse　is　caught　and　broken；　one　of　the　soldiers　shoots　the　animal；　the　traces　are　unbuckled；　another　beast　is　substituted。　Beyond；　the　seamen　are　waiting　with　tackle　attached　to　trees　on　the　ridge　above　to　assist　the　horses　on　the　cruel　upgradeand　Braddock；　the　deceived；　maligned；　misrepresented；　and　misjudged；　creeps　onward　in　his　brave　conquest　of　the　Alleghanies　in　a　campaign　that；　in　spite　of　its　military　failure；　deserves　honorable　mention　among　the　achievements　of　British　arms。
  Everywhere；　north　and　south；　the　early　American　road　was　a　veritable　Slough　of　Despond。　Watery　pits　were　to　be　encountered　wherein　horses　were　drowned　and　loads　sank　from　sight。　Frequently　traffic　was　stopped