s　and　divided；　a　small　Inclosure　they　keep　for　Corn；　for　the　family；　the　rest　is　the　Pasture　in　which　they　keep　their　calves；　but　the　Manner　is　far　different　from　any　Thing　you　ever　saw；　they　may　perhaps　have　a　Stock　of　four　or　five　hundred　to　a　thousand　Head　of　Cattle　belonging　to　a　Cow…pen；　these　run　as　they　please　in　the　Great　Woods；　where　there　are　no　Inclosures　to　stop　them。　In　the　Month　of　March　the　Cows　begin　to　drop　their　Calves；　then　the　Cow…pen　Master；　with　all　his　Men；　rides　out　to　see　and　drive　up　the　Cows　with　all　their　new　fallen　Calves；　they　being　weak　cannot　run　away　so　as　to　escape；　therefore　are　easily　drove　up；　and　the　Bulls　and　other　Cattle　follow　them；　and　they　put　these　Calves　into　the　Pasture；　and　every　Morning　and　Evening　suffer　the　Cows　to　come　and　suckle　them；　which　done　they　let　the　Cows　out　into　the　great　Woods　to　shift　for　their　Food　as　well　as　they　can；　whilst　the　Calf　is　sucking　one　Tit　of　the　Cow；　the　Woman　of　the　Cow…Pen　is　milking　one　of　the　other　Tits；　so　that　she　steals　some　Milk　from　the　Cow；　who　thinks　she　is　giving　it　to　the　Calf；　soon　as　the　Cow　begins　to　go　dry；　and　the　Calf　grows　Strong；　they　mark　them；　if　they　are　Males　they　cut　them；　and　let　them　go　into　the　Wood。　Every　Year　in　September　and　October　they　drive　up　the　Market　Steers；　that　are　fat　and　of　a　proper　Age；　and　kill　them；　they　say　they　are　fat　in　October；　but　I　am　sure　they　are　not　so　in　May；　June　and　July；　they　reckon　that　out　of　100　Head　of　Cattle　they　can　kill　about　10　or　12　steers；　and　four　or　five　Cows　a　Year；　so　they　reckon　that　a　Cow…Pen　for　every　100　Head　of　Cattle　brings　about　40　pounds　Sterling　per　Year。　The　Keepers　live　chiefly　upon　Milk；　for　out　of　their　Vast　Herds；　they　do　condescend　to　tame　Cows　enough　to　keep　their　Family　in　Milk；　Whey；　Curds；　Cheese　and　Butter；　they　also　have　Flesh　in　Abundance　such　as　it　is；　for　they　eat　the　old　Cows　and　lean　Calves　that　are　like　to　die。　The　Cow…Pen　Men　are　hardy　People；　are　almost　continually　on　Horseback；　being　obliged　to　know　the　Haunts　of　their　Cattle〃。　〃You　see；　Sir；　what　a　wild　set　of　Creatures　Our　English　Men　grow　into；　when　they　lose　Society；　and　it　is　surprising　to　think　how　many　Advantages　they　throw　away；　which　our　industrious　Country…Men　would　be　glad　of：　Out　of　many　hundred　Cows　they　will　not　give　themselves　the　trouble　of　milking　more　than　will　maintain　their　Family。〃
  With　such　a　race　of　born　horsemen；　every　whit　as　bold　and　resourceful　as　the　voyageurs；　to　bear　the　brunt　of　a　new　era　of　transportation；　all　that　was　needed　to　challenge　French　trade　beyond　the　Alleghanies　was　competent　and　aggressive　leadership。　The　situation　called　for　men　of　means；　men　of　daring；　men　closely　in　touch　with　governors　and　assemblies　and　acquainted　with　the　web　of　politics　that　was　being　spun　at　Philadelphia；　Williamsburg；　New　York；　London；　and　Paris。　Generations　of　tenacious　struggle　along　the　American　frontier　had　developed　such　men。　The　Weisers；　Croghans；　Gists；　Washingtons；　Franklins；　Walkers；　and　Cresaps　were　men　of　varied　descent　and　nationality。　They　had　the　cunning；　the　boldness；　and　the　resources　to　undertake　successfully　the　task　of　conquering　commercially　the　Great　West。　They　were　the　first　men　of　the　colonies　to　be　unafraid　of　that　bugbear　of　the　trader；　Distance。　We　may　aptly　call　them　the　first　Americans　because；　though　not　a　few　were　actually　born　abroad；　they　were　the　first　whose　plans；　spirit；　and　very　life　were　dominated　by　the　vision　of　an　America　of　continental　dimensions。
  The　long　story　of　French　and　English　rivalry　and　of　the　war　which　ended　it　concerns　us　here　chiefly　as　a　commercial　struggle。　The　French　at　Niagara　（1749）　had　access　to　the　Ohio　by　way　of　Lake　Erie　and　any　one　of　several　riversthe　Allegheny；　the　Muskingum；　the　Scioto；　or　the　Miami。　The　main　routes　of　the　English　were　the　Nemacolin　and　Kittanning　paths。　The　French；　laboring　under　the　disadvantages　of　the　longer　distance　over　which　their　goods　had　to　be　transported　to　the　Indians　and　of　the　higher　price　necessarily　demanded　for　them；　had　to　meet　the　competition　of　the　traders　from　the　rival　colonies　of　Pennsylvania　and　Virginia；　each　of　them　jealous　of　and　underbidding　the　other。
  When　Celoron　de　Blainville　was　sent　to　the　Allegheny　in　1749；　by　the　Governor　of　New　France；　his　message　was　that　〃the　Governor　of　Canada　desired　his　children　on　Ohio　to　turn　away　the　English　Traders　from　amongst　them　and　discharge　them　from　ever　coming　to　trade　there　again；　or　on　any　of　the　Branches。〃　He　sent　away　all　the　traders　whom　he　found；　giving　them　letters　addressed　to　their　respective　governors　denying　England's　right　to　trade　in　the　West。　To　offset　this　move；　within　two　years　Pennsylvania　sent　goods　to　the　value　of　nine　hundred　pounds　in　order　to　hold　the　Indians　constant。　The　Governor　had　already　ordered　the　traders　to　sell　whiskey　to　the　Indians　at　〃5　Bucks〃　per　cask　and　had　told　the　Indians；　through　his　agent　Conrad　Weiser；　that　if　any　trader　refused　to　sell　the　liquor　at　that　price　they　might　〃take　it　from　him　and　drink　it　for　nothing。〃　There　was　but　one　way　for　the　French　to　meet　such　competition。　Without　delay　they　fortified　the　Allegheny　and　began　to　coerce　the　natives。　Driving　away　the　carpenters　of　the　Ohio　Company　from　the　present　site　of　Pittsburgh；　they　built　Fort　Duquesne。　The　beginning　of　the　Old　French　War　ended　what　we　may　call　the　first　era　of　the　pack…horse　trade。
  The　capture　of　Fort　Duquesne　by　the　English　army　under　General　Forbes　in　1758　and　the　final　conquest　of　New　France　two　years　later　removed　the　French　barrier　and　opened　the　way　to　expansion　beyond　the　Alleghanies。　Thereafter　settlements　in　the　Monongahela　country　grew　apace。　Pittsburgh；　Uniontown；　Morgantown；　Brownsville；　Ligonier；　Greensburg；　Connellsvillewe　give　the　modern　namesbecame　centers　of　a　great　migration　which　was　halted　only　for　a　season　by　Pontiac's　Rebellion；　the　aftermath　of　the　French　War；　and　was　resumed　immediately　on　the　suppression　of　that　Indian　rising。　The　pack…horse　trade　now　entered　its　final　and　most　important　era。　The　earlier　period　was　one　in　which　the　trade　was　confined　chiefly　to　the　Indians；　the　later　phase　was　concerned　with　supplying　the　needs　of　the　white　man　in　his　rapidly　developing　frontier　settlements。　Formerly　the　principal　articles　of　merchandise　for　the　western　trade　were　guns；　ammunition；　knives；　kettles；　and　tools　for　their　repair；　blankets；　tobacco；　hatchets；　and　liquor。　In　the　new　era　every　known　product　of　the　East　found　a　market　in　the　thriving　communities　of　the　upper　Ohio。　As　time　went　on　the　West　began　to　send　to　the　East；　in　addition　to　skins　and　pelts；　whiskey　that　brought　a　dollar　a　gallon。　Each　pony　could　carry　sixteen　gallons　and　every　drop　could　be　sold　for　real　money。　On　the　return　trip　the　pack…horses　carried　back　chiefly　salt　and　iron。
  Doddridge's　〃Notes〃；　one　of　the　chief　sources　of　our　information；　gives　this　lively　picture：
  〃In　the　fall　of　the　year；　after　seeding　time；　every　family　formed　an　association　with　some　of　their　neighbors；　for　starting　the　little　caravan。　A　master　driver　was　to　be　selected　from　among　them；　who　was　to　be　assisted　by　one　or　more　young　men　and　sometimes　a　boy　or　two。　The　horses　were　fitted　out　with　packsaddles；　to　the　latter　part　of　which　was　fastened　a　pair　of　hobbles　made　of　hickory　withes；a　bell　and　collar　ornamented　their　necks。　The　bags　provided　for　the　conveyance　of　the　salt　were　filled　with　bread；　jerk；　boiled　ham；　and　cheese　furnished　a　provision　for　the　drivers。　At　night；　after　feeding；　the　horses；　whether　put　in　pasture　or　turned　out　into　the　woods；　were　hobbled　and　the　bells　were　opened。　The　barter　for　salt　and　iron　was　made　first　at　Baltimore；　Frederick；　Hagerstown；　Oldtown；　and　Fort　Cumberland；　in　succession；　became　the　places　of　exchange。　Each　horse　carried　two　bushels　of　alum　salt；　weighing　eighty…four　pounds　to　the　bushel。　This；　to　be　sure；　was　not　a　heavy　load　for　the　horses；　but　it　was　enough；　considering　the　scanty　subsistence　allowed　them　on　the　journey。　The　common　price　of　a　bushel　of　alum　salt；　at　an　early　period；　was　a　good　cow　and　a　calf。
  Thus；　with　the　English　flag　afloat　at　Fort　Pitt；　as　Duquesne　was　renamed　after　its　capture；　a　new　day　dawned　for　the　great　region　to　the　West。　Beyond　the　Alleghanies　and　as　far　as　the　Rockies；　a　new　science　of　transportation　was　now　to　be　learnedthe　art　of　finding　the　dividing　ridge。　Here　the　first　routes；　like　the　〃Great　Trail〃　from　Pittsburgh　to　Detroit；　struck　out　with　an　assurance　that　is　in　marvelous　agreement　with　the　findings　of　the　surveyors　of　a　later　day。　The　railways；　when　they　came；　found　the　valleys　and　penetrated　with　their　tunnels　the　watersheds　from　the　heads　of　the　streams　of　one　drainage　area　to　the　streams　of　another。　Thus　on　the　Pennsylvania；　the　Baltimore　and　Ohio；　the　Southern；　the　Chesapeake　and　Ohio；　and　other　railroads；　important　tunnels　are　to　be　found　lying　immediately　under　the　Red　Man's　trail　which　clung　to　the　long　ascending　slope　and　held　persistently　to　the　dividing　ridges。
  Even　this　necessarily　brief　survey　shows　plainly　how　that　preeminently　American　institution；　the　ridge　road；　came　about。　East　and　west；　it　was　the　legitimate　and　natural　successor　to　the　ancient　trail。　With　the　coming　of　the　wagon；　whose　rattle　was　heard　among　the　hills　as　earl