of　the　disposition　to　act　from　pure　duty。　Although　many　things　are
  done　in　conformity　with　what　duty　prescribes；　it　is　nevertheless
  always　doubtful　whether　they　are　done　strictly　from　duty；　so　as　to
  have　a　moral　worth。　Hence　there　have　at　all　times　been　philosophers
  who　have　altogether　denied　that　this　disposition　actually　exists　at
  all　in　human　actions；　and　have　ascribed　everything　to　a　more　or　less
  refined　self…love。　Not　that　they　have　on　that　account　questioned　the
  soundness　of　the　conception　of　morality；　on　the　contrary；　they　spoke
  with　sincere　regret　of　the　frailty　and　corruption　of　human　nature；
  which；　though　noble　enough　to　take　its　rule　an　idea　so　worthy　of
  respect；　is　yet　weak　to　follow　it　and　employs　reason　which　ought　to
  give　it　the　law　only　for　the　purpose　of　providing　for　the　interest
  of　the　inclinations；　whether　singly　or　at　the　best　in　the　greatest
  possible　harmony　with　one　another。
  In　fact；　it　is　absolutely　impossible　to　make　out　by　experience
  with　complete　certainty　a　single　case　in　which　the　maxim　of　an　action；
  however　right　in　itself；　rested　simply　on　moral　grounds　and　on　the
  conception　of　duty。　Sometimes　it　happens　that　with　the　sharpest
  self…examination　we　can　find　nothing　beside　the　moral　principle　of
  duty　which　could　have　been　powerful　enough　to　move　us　to　this　or
  that　action　and　to　so　great　a　sacrifice；　yet　we　cannot　from　this　infer
  with　certainty　that　it　was　not　really　some　secret　impulse　of
  self…love；　under　the　false　appearance　of　duty；　that　was　the　actual
  determining　cause　of　the　will。　We　like　them　to　flatter　ourselves　by
  falsely　taking　credit　for　a　more　noble　motive；　whereas　in　fact　we
  can　never；　even　by　the　strictest　examination；　get　completely　behind
  the　secret　springs　of　action；　since；　when　the　question　is　of　moral
  worth；　it　is　not　with　the　actions　which　we　see　that　we　are
  concerned；　but　with　those　inward　principles　of　them　which　we　do　not
  see。
  Moreover；　we　cannot　better　serve　the　wishes　of　those　who　ridicule
  all　morality　as　a　mere　chimera　of　human　imagination　over　stepping
  itself　from　vanity；　than　by　conceding　to　them　that　notions　of　duty
  must　be　drawn　only　from　experience　（as　from　indolence；　people　are
  ready　to　think　is　also　the　case　with　all　other　notions）；　for　or　is
  to　prepare　for　them　a　certain　triumph。　I　am　willing　to　admit　out　of
  love　of　humanity　that　even　most　of　our　actions　are　correct；　but　if
  we　look　closer　at　them　we　everywhere　come　upon　the　dear　self　which
  is　always　prominent；　and　it　is　this　they　have　in　view　and　not　the
  strict　command　of　duty　which　would　often　require　self…denial。
  Without　being　an　enemy　of　virtue；　a　cool　observer；　one　that　does　not
  mistake　the　wish　for　good；　however　lively；　for　its　reality；　may
  sometimes　doubt　whether　true　virtue　is　actually　found　anywhere　in
  the　world；　and　this　especially　as　years　increase　and　the　judgement
  is　partly　made　wiser　by　experience　and　partly；　also；　more　acute　in
  observation。　This　being　so；　nothing　can　secure　us　from　falling　away
  altogether　from　our　ideas　of　duty；　or　maintain　in　the　soul　a
  well…grounded　respect　for　its　law；　but　the　clear　conviction　that
  although　there　should　never　have　been　actions　which　really　sprang　from
  such　pure　sources；　yet　whether　this　or　that　takes　place　is　not　at
  all　the　question；　but　that　reason　of　itself；　independent　on　all
  experience；　ordains　what　ought　to　take　place；　that　accordingly　actions
  of　which　perhaps　the　world　has　hitherto　never　given　an　example；　the
  feasibility　even　of　which　might　be　very　much　doubted　by　one　who　founds
  everything　on　experience；　are　nevertheless　inflexibly　commanded　by
  reason；　that；　e。g。；　even　though　there　might　never　yet　have　been　a
  sincere　friend；　yet　not　a　whit　the　less　is　pure　sincerity　in
  friendship　required　of　every　man；　because；　prior　to　all　experience；
  this　duty　is　involved　as　duty　in　the　idea　of　a　reason　determining
  the　will　by　a　priori　principles。
  When　we　add　further　that；　unless　we　deny　that　the　notion　of　morality
  has　any　truth　or　reference　to　any　possible　object；　we　must　admit
  that　its　law　must　be　valid；　not　merely　for　men　but　for　all　rational
  creatures　generally；　not　merely　under　certain　contingent　conditions　or
  with　exceptions　but　with　absolute　necessity；　then　it　is　clear　that
  no　experience　could　enable　us　to　infer　even　the　possibility　of　such
  apodeictic　laws。　For　with　what　right　could　we　bring　into　unbounded
  respect　as　a　universal　precept　for　every　rational　nature　that　which
  perhaps　holds　only　under　the　contingent　conditions　of　humanity？　Or　how
  could　laws　of　the　determination　of　our　will　be　regarded　as　laws　of　the
  determination　of　the　will　of　rational　beings　generally；　and　for　us
  only　as　such；　if　they　were　merely　empirical　and　did　not　take　their
  origin　wholly　a　priori　from　pure　but　practical　reason？
  Nor　could　anything　be　more　fatal　to　morality　than　that　we　should
  wish　to　derive　it　from　examples。　For　every　example　of　it　that　is　set
  before　me　must　be　first　itself　tested　by　principles　of　morality；
  whether　it　is　worthy　to　serve　as　an　original　example；　i。e。；　as　a
  pattern；　but　by　no　means　can　it　authoritatively　furnish　the　conception
  of　morality。　Even　the　Holy　One　of　the　Gospels　must　first　be　compared
  with　our　ideal　of　moral　perfection　before　we　can　recognise　Him　as
  such；　and　so　He　says　of　Himself；　〃Why　call　ye　Me　（whom　you　see）
  good；　none　is　good　（the　model　of　good）　but　God　only　（whom　ye　do　not
  see）？〃　But　whence　have　we　the　conception　of　God　as　the　supreme　good？
  Simply　from　the　idea　of　moral　perfection；　which　reason　frames　a　priori
  and　connects　inseparably　with　the　notion　of　a　free　will。　Imitation
  finds　no　place　at　all　in　morality；　and　examples　serve　only　for
  encouragement；　i。e。；　they　put　beyond　doubt　the　feasibility　of　what　the
  law　commands；　they　make　visible　that　which　the　practical　rule
  expresses　more　generally；　but　they　can　never　authorize　us　to　set　aside
  the　true　original　which　lies　in　reason　and　to　guide　ourselves　by
  examples。
  If　then　there　is　no　genuine　supreme　principle　of　morality　but　what
  must　rest　simply　on　pure　reason；　independent　of　all　experience；　I
  think　it　is　not　necessary　even　to　put　the　question　whether　it　is
  good　to　exhibit　these　concepts　in　their　generality　（in　abstracto）　as
  they　are　established　a　priori　along　with　the　principles　belonging　to
  them；　if　our　knowledge　is　to　be　distinguished　from　the　vulgar　and　to
  be　called　philosophical。
  In　our　times　indeed　this　might　perhaps　be　necessary；　for　if　we
  collected　votes　whether　pure　rational　knowledge　separated　from
  everything　empirical；　that　is　to　say；　metaphysic　of　morals；　or　whether
  popular　practical　philosophy　is　to　be　preferred；　it　is　easy　to　guess
  which　side　would　preponderate。
  This　descending　to　popular　notions　is　certainly　very　commendable；　if
  the　ascent　to　the　principles　of　pure　reason　has　first　taken　place
  and　been　satisfactorily　accomplished。　This　implies　that　we　first　found
  ethics　on　metaphysics；　and　then；　when　it　is　firmly　established；
  procure　a　hearing　for　it　by　giving　it　a　popular　character。　But　it　is
  quite　absurd　to　try　to　be　popular　in　the　first　inquiry；　on　which　the
  soundness　of　the　principles　depends。　It　is　not　only　that　this
  proceeding　can　never　lay　claim　to　the　very　rare　merit　of　a　true
  philosophical　popularity；　since　there　is　no　art　in　being
  intelligible　if　one　renounces　all　thoroughness　of　insight；　but　also　it
  produces　a　disgusting　medley　of　compiled　observations　and
  half…reasoned　principles。　Shallow　pates　enjoy　this　because　it　can　be
  used　for　every…day　chat；　but　the　sagacious　find　in　it　only
  confusion；　and　being　unsatisfied　and　unable　to　help　themselves；　they
  turn　away　their　eyes；　while　philosophers；　who　see　quite　well　through
  this　delusion；　are　little　listened　to　when　they　call　men　off　for　a
  time　from　this　pretended　popularity；　in　order　that　they　might　be
  rightfully　popular　after　they　have　attained　a　definite　insight。
  We　need　only　look　at　the　attempts　of　moralists　in　that　favourite
  fashion；　and　we　shall　find　at　one　time　the　special　constitution　of
  human　nature　（including；　however；　the　idea　of　a　rational　nature
  generally）；　at　one　time　perfection；　at　another　happiness；　here　moral
  sense；　there　fear　of　God。　a　little　of　this；　and　a　little　of　that；　in
  marvellous　mixture；　without　its　occurring　to　them　to　ask　whether　the
  principles　of　morality　are　to　be　sought　in　the　knowledge　of　human
  nature　at　all　（which　we　can　have　only　from　experience）；　or；　if　this　is
  not　so；　if　these　principles　are　to　be　found　altogether　a　priori；
  free　from　everything　empirical；　in　pure　rational　concepts　only　and
  nowhere　else；　not　even　in　the　smallest　degree；　then　rather　to　adopt
  the　method　of　making　this　a　separate　inquiry；　as　pure　practical
  philosophy；　or　（if　one　may　use　a　name　so　decried）　as　metaphysic　of
  morals；*　to　bring　it　by　itself　to　completeness；　and　to　require　the
  public；　which　wishes　for　popular　treatment；　to　await　the　issue　of　this
  undertaking。
  *Just　as　pure　mathematics　are　distinguished　from　applied