nning　as　a　partisan　of　　Savonarola；　he　became　afterwards　possessed　with　an　enthusiasm　for　the　　ancient　ideals　of　liberty；　and　for　paganism　in　general；　but　when　he　was　　in　prison　his　early　friends　regained　the　control　of　his　mind；　and　　secured　for　him　what　they　considered　a　pious　ending。　The　tender　witness　　and　narrator　of　his　last　hours　is　one　of　the　artistic　family　of　the　　Della　Robbia；　the　learned　philologist　Luca。　'Ah；'　sighs　Boscoli；　'get　　Brutus　out　of　my　head　for　me；　that　I　may　go　my　way　as　a　Christian。'　'If　　you　will；'　answers　Luca；　'the　thing　is　not　difficult；　for　you　know　that　　these　deeds　of　the　Romans　are　not　handed　down　to　us　as　they　were；　but　　idealized　（con　arte　accresciute）。'　The　penitent　now　forces　his　　understanding　to　believe；　and　bewails　his　inability　to　believe　　voluntarily。　If　he　could　only　live　for　a　month　with　pious　monks　he　　would　truly　become　spiritually　minded。　It　comes　out　that　these　　partisans　of　Savonarola　knew　their　Bible　very　imperfectly；　Boscoli　can　　only　say　the　Paternoster　and　Ave　Maria；　and　earnestly　begs　Luca　to　　exhort　his　friends　to　study　the　sacred　writings；　for　only　what　a　man　　has　learned　in　life　does　he　possess　in　death。　Luca　then　reads　and　　explains　to　him　the　story　of　the　Passion　according　to　the　Gospel　of　St。　　John；　the　poor　listener；　strange　to　say；　can　perceive　clearly　the　　Godhead　of　Christ；　but　is　perplexed　at　His　manhood；　he　wishes　to　get　as　　firm　a　hold　of　it　'as　if　Christ　came　to　meet　him　out　of　a　wood。'　His　　friend　thereupon　exhorts　him　to　be　humble；　since　this　was　only　a　doubt　　sent　him　by　the　Devil。　Soon　after　it　occurs　to　the　penitent　that　he　has　　not　fulfilled　a　vow　made　in　his　youth　to　go　on　pilgrimage　to　the　　Impruneta；　his　friend　promises　to　do　it　in　his　stead。　Meantime　the　　confessora　monk；　as　was　desired；　from　Savonarola's　monastery　arrives；　and　after　giving　him　the　explanation　quoted　above　of　the　　opinion　of　St。　Thomas　Aquinas　on　tyrannicide；　exhorts　him　to　bear　death　　manfully。　Boscoli　makes　answer：　'Father；　waste　no　time　on　this；　the　　philosophers　have　taught　it　me　already；　help　me　to　bear　death　out　of　　love　to　Christ。'　What　follows；　the　communion；　the　leave…taking　and　the　　executionis　very　touchingly　described；　one　point　deserves　special　　mention。　When　Boscoli　laid　his　head　on　the　block；　he　begged　the　　executioner　to　delay　the　stroke　for　a　moment：　'During　the　whole　time　　since　the　announcement　of　the　sentence　he　had　been　striving　after　a　　close　union　with　God；　without　attaining　it　as　he　wished；　and　now　in　　this　supreme　moment　he　thought　that　by　a　strong　effort　he　could　give　　himself　wholly　to　God。'　It　is　clearly　some　half…understood　expression　　of　Savonarola　which　was　troubling　him。
  If　we　had　more　confessions　of　this　character　the　spiritual　picture　of　　the　time　would　be　richer　by　many　important　features　which　no　poem　or　　treatise　has　preserved　for　us。　We　should　see　more　clearly　how　strong　　the　inborn　religious　instinct　was；　how　subjective　and　how　variable　the　　relation　of　the　individual　to　religion；　and　what　powerful　enemies　and　　competitors　religion　had。　That　men　whose　inward　condition　is　of　this　　nature；　are　not　the　men　to　found　a　new　church；　is　evident；　but　the　　history　of　the　Western　spirit　would　be　imperfect　without　a　view　of　that　　fermenting　period　among　the　Italians；　while　other　nations；　who　have　had　　no　share　in　the　evolution　of　thought；　may　be　passed　over　without　loss。　　But　we　must　return　to　the　question　of　immortality。　　　If　unbelief　in　this　respect　made　such　progress　among　the　more　highly　　cultivated　natures；　the　reason　lay　partly　in　the　fact　that　the　great　　earthly　task　of　discovering　the　world　and　representing　it　in　word　and　　form；　absorbed　most　of　the　higher　spiritual　faculties。　We　have　already　　spoken　of　the　inevitable　worldliness　of　the　Renaissance。　But　this　　investigation　and　this　art　were　necessarily　accompanied　by　a　general　　spirit　of　doubt　and　inquiry。　If　this　spirit　shows　itself　but　little　in　　literature；　if　we　find；　for　example；　only　isolated　instances　of　the　　beginnings　of　biblical　criticism；　we　are　not　therefore　to　infer　that　it　　had　no　existence。　The　sound　of　it　was　only　overpowered　by　the　need　of　　representation　and　creation　in　all　departments　that　is；　by　the　　artistic　instinct；　and　it　was　further　checked；　whenever　it　tried　to　　express　itself　theoretically；　by　the　already　existing　despotism　of　the　　Church。　This　spirit　of　doubt　must；　for　reasons　too　obvious　to　need　　discussion；　have　inevitably　and　chiefly　busied　itself　with　the　question　　of　the　state　of　man　after　death。
  And　here　came　in　the　influence　of　antiquity；　and　worked　in　a　twofold　　fashion　on　the　argument。　In　the　first　place　men　set　themselves　to　　master　the　psychology　of　the　ancients；　and　tortured　the　letter　of　　Aristotle　for　a　decisive　answer。　In　one　of　the　Lucianic　dialogues　of　　the　time；　Charon　tells　Mercury　how　he　questioned　Aristotle　on　his　　belief　in　immortality；　when　the　philosopher　crossed　in　the　Stygian　　boat；　but　the　prudent　sage；　although　dead　in　the　body　and　nevertheless　　living　on；　declined　to　compromise　himself　by　a　definite　answerand　　centuries　later　how　was　it　likely　to　fare　with　the　interpretation　of　　his　writings？　All　the　more　eagerly　did　men　dispute　about　his　opinion　　and　that　of　others　on　the　true　nature　of　the　soul；　its　origin；　its　　pre…existence；　its　unity　in　all　men；　its　absolute　eternitY；　even　its　　transformations；　and　there　were　men　who　treated　of　these　things　in　the　　pulpit。　The　dispute　was　warmly　carried　on　even　in　the　fifteenth　　century；　some　proved　that　Aristotle　taught　the　doctrine　of　an　immortal　　soul；　others　complained　of　the　hardness　of　men's　hearts；　who　would　not　　believe　that　there　was　a　soul　at　all；　till　they　saw　it　sitting　down　on　　a　chair　before　them；　Filelfo；　in　his　funeral　oration　on　Francesco　　Sforza；　brings　forward　a　long　list　of　opinions　of　ancient　and　even　of　　Arab　philosophers　in　favour　of　immortality；　and　closes　the　mixture；　　which　covers　a　folio　page　and　a　half　of　print；　with　the　words；　'Besides　　all　this　we　have　the　Old　and　New　Testaments；　which　are　above　all　　truth。'　Then　came　the　Florentine　Platonists　with　their　master's　　doctrine　of　the　soul；　supplemented　at　times；　as　in　the　case　of　Pico；　by　　Christian　teaching。　But　the　opposite　opinion　prevailed　in　the　　instructed　world。　At　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century　the　　stumbling…block　which　it　put　in　the　way　of　the　Church　was　so　serious　　that　Leo　X　set　forth　a　Constitution　at　the　Lateran　Council　in　1513；　in　　defence　of　the　immortality　and　individuality　of　the　soul；　the　latter　　against　those　who　asserted　that　there　was　but　one　soul　in　all　men。　A　　few　years　later　appeared　the　work　of　Pomponazzo；　in　which　the　　impossibility　of　a　philosophical　proof　of　immortality　is　maintained；　　and　the　contest　was　now　waged　incessantly　with　replies　and　'apologies；'　　till　it　was　silenced　by　the　Catholic　reaction。　The　pre…existence　of　the　　soul　in　God；　conceived　more　or　less　in　accordance　with　Plato's　theory　　of　ideas；　long　remained　a　common　belief；　and　proved　of　service　even　to　　the　poets。　The　consequences　which　followed　from　it　as　to　the　mode　of　　the　soul's　continued　existence　after　death　were　not　more　closely　　considered。
  There　was　a　second　way　in　which　the　influence　of　antiquity　made　itself　　felt；　chiefly　by　means　of　that　remarkable　fragment　of　the　sixth　book　of　　Cicero's　'Republic；'　known　by　the　name　of　Scipio's　Dream。　Without　the　　commentary　of　Macrobius　it　would　probably　have　perished　like　the　rest　　of　the　second　part　of　the　work；　it　was　now　diffused　in　countless　　manuscript　copies；　and；　after　the　discovery　of　typography；　in　a　printed　　form　and　edited　afresh　by　various　commentatOrs。　It　is　the　description　　of　a　transfigured　hereafter　for　great　men；　pervaded　by　the　harmony　of　　the　spheres。　This　pagan　heaven；　for　which　many　other　testimonies　were　　gradually　extracted　from　the　writings　of　the　ancients；　came　step　by　　step　to　supplant　the　Christian　heaven　in　proportion　as　the　ideal　of　　fame　and　historical　greatness　threw　into　the　shade　the　ideal　of　the　　Christian　life；　without；　nevertheless；　the　public　feeling　being　thereby　　offended　as　it　was　by　the　doctrine　of　personal　annihilation　after　　death。　Even　Petrarch　founds　his　hope　chiefly　on　this　Dream　of　Scipio；　　on　the　declarations　found　in　other　Ciceronian　works；　and　on　Plato's　　'Phaedo；'　without　making　any　mention　of　the　Bible。　'Why；'　he　asks　　elsewhere；　'should　not　I　as　a　Catholic　share　a　hope　which　was　　demonstrably　cherished　by　the　heathen？'　Soon　afterwards　Coluccio　　Salutati　wrote　his　'Labors　of　Hercules'　（still　existing　in　manuscript）；　　in　which　it　is　proved　at　the　end　that　the　valorous　man；　who　has　well　　endured　the　great　labors　of　earthly　life；　is　justly　entitled　to　a　　dwelling　among　the　stars。　If　Dante　still　firmly　maintained　that　the　　great　pagans；　whom　he　would　have　gladly　welcomed　in　Paradise；　　nevertheless　must　not　come　beyond　the　Limbo　at　the　entrance　to　Hell；　　the　poetry　of　a　later　time　accepted　joyfully　the　new　liberal　ideas　of　a　　future　life。　Cosimo　the　Elder；　according　to　Bernardo　Pulci's　poem　on　　his　death；　was　received　in　heaven　by　Cicero；　who　had　also　been　called　　the　'father　of　his　country；'　by　the　Fabii；　by　Curius；　Fabricius　and　　many　others；　with　them　he　would　adorn　the　choir　where　only　blameless　　spirits　sing。
  But　in　the　old　wr