e　long…bearded　Saracen；　Paul　of　Baghdad。　In　all　　important　undertakings　they　fixed　for　him　the　day　and　the　hour；　and　the　　gigantic　atrocities　of　which　he　was　guilty　may　have　been　in　part　　practical　inferences　from　their　prophecies。　Soon　all　scruples　about　　consulting　the　stars　ceased。　Not　only　princes；　but　free　cities；　had　　their　regular　astrologers；　and　at　the　universities；　from　the　fourteenth　　to　the　sixteenth　century；　professors　of　this　pseudo…science　were　　appointed；　and　lectured　side　by　side　with　the　astronomers。　The　Popes　　commonly　made　no　secret　of　their　stargazing；　though　Pius　II；　who　also　　despised　magic；　omens；　and　the　interpretation　of　dreams；　is　an　　honorable　exception。　Even　Leo　X　seems　to　have　thought　the　flourishing　　condition　of　astrology　a　credit　to　his　pontificate；　and　Paul　III　never　　held　a　Consistory　till　the　stargazers　had　fixed　the　hour。
  It　may　fairly　be　assumed　that　the　better　natures　did　not　allow　their　　actions　to　be　determined　by　the　stars　beyond　a　certain　point；　and　that　　there　was　a　limit　where　conscience　and　religion　made　them　pause。　In　　fact；　not　only　did　pious　and　excellent　people　share　the　delusion；　but　　they　actually　came　forward　to　profess　it　publicly。　One　of　these　was　　Maestro　Pagolo　of　Florence；　in　whom　we　can　detect　the　same　desire　to　　bring　astrology　to　moral　account　which　meets　us　in　the　late　Roman　　Firmicus　Maternus。　His　life　was　that　of　a　saintly　ascetic。　He　ate　　almost　nothing；　despised　all　temporal　goods；　and　only　collected　books。　　A　skilled　physician；　he　only　practiced　among　his　friends；　and　made　it　a　　condition　of　his　treatment　that　they　should　confess　their　sins。　He　　frequented　the　small　but　famous　circle　which　assembled　in　the　Monastery　　of　the　Angeli　around　Fra　Ambrogio　Camaldolese。　He　also　saw　much　of　　Cosimo　the　Elder；　especially　in　his　last　years；　for　Cosimo　accepted　and　　used　astrology；　though　probably　only　for　objects　of　lesser　importance。　　As　a　rule；　however；　Pagolo　only　interpreted　the　stars　to　his　most　　confidential　friends。　But　even　without　this　severity　of　morals；　the　　astrologers　might　be　highly　respected　and　show　themselves　everywhere。　　There　were　also　far　more　of　them　in　Italy　than　in　other　European　　countries；　where　they　only　appeared　at　the　great　courts；　and　there　not　　always。　All　the　great　householders　in　Italy；　when　the　fashion　was　once　　established；　kept　an　astrologer；　who；　it　must　be　added；　was　not　always　　sure　of　his　dinner。　Through　the　literature　of　this　science；　which　was　　widely　diffused　even　before　the　invention　of　printing；　a　dilettantism　　also　grew　up　which　as　far　as　possible　followed　in　the　steps　of　the　　masters。　The　worst　class　of　astrologers　were　those　who　used　the　stars　　either　as　an　aid　or　a　cloak　to　magical　arts。
  Yet　apart　from　the　latter；　astrology　is　a　miserable　feature　in　the　life　　of　that　time。　What　a　figure　do　all　these　highly　gifted；　many…sided；　　original　characters　play；　when　the　blind　passion　for　knowing　and　　determining　the　future　dethrones　their　powerful　will　and　resolution！　　Now　and　then；　when　the　stars　send　them　too　cruel　a　message；　they　manage　　to　brace　themselves　up；　act　for　themselves；　and　say　boldly：　'Vir　　sapiens　dominabitus　lustris'；　the　wise　man　is　master　of　the　starsand　　then　again　relapse　into　the　old　delusion。
  In　all　the　better　families　the　horoscope　of　the　children　was　drawn　as　a　　matter　of　course；　and　it　sometimes　happened　that　for　half　a　lifetime　　men　were　haunted　by　the　idle　expectation　of　events　which　never　　occurred！　The　stars　were　questioned　whenever　a　great　man　had　to　come　to　　any　important　decision；　and　even　consulted　as　to　the　hour　at　which　any　　undertaking　was　to　be　begun。　The　journeys　of　princes；　the　reception　of　　foreign　ambassadors；　the　laying　of　the　foundation…stones　of　public　　buildings；　depended　on　the　answer。　A　striking　instance　of　the　latter　　occurs　in　the　life　of　the　aforenamed　Guido　Bonatto；　who　by　his　personal　　activity　and　by　his　great　systematic　work　on　the　subject　deserves　to　be　　called　the　restorer　of　astrology　in　the　thirteenth　century。　In　order　to　　put　an　end　to　the　struggle　of　the　Guelphs　and　Ghibellines　at　Forli；　he　　persuaded　the　inhabitants　to　rebuild　the　city　walls　and　to　begin　the　　works　under　a　constellation　indicated　by　himself。　If　then　two　men；　one　　from　each　party；　at　the　same　moment　put　a　stone　into　the　foundation；　　there　would　henceforth　and　for　ever　be　no　more　party　divisions　in　　Forli。　A　Guelph　and　a　Ghibelline　were　selected　for　this　office；　the　　solemn　moment　arrived；　each　held　the　stone　in　his　hands；　the　workmen　　stood　ready　with　their　implements。　Bonatto　gave　the　signal；　and　the　　Ghibelline　threw　down　his　stone　on　to　the　foundation。　But　the　Guelph　　hesitated；　and　at　last　refused　to　do　anything　at　all；　on　the　ground　　that　Bonatto　himself　had　the　reputation　of　a　Ghibelline　and　might　be　　devising　some　mysterious　mischief　against　the　Guelphs。　Upon　which　the　　astrologer　addressed　him：　'God　damn　thee　and　the　Guelph　party　with　your　　distrustful　malice！　This　constellation　will　not　appear　above　our　city　　for　500　years　to　come。'　In　fact　God　soon　afterwards　did　destroy　the　　Guelphs　of　Forli；　but　now；　writes　the　chronicler　about　1480；　the　two　　parties　are　thoroughly　reconciled；　and　their　very　names　are　heard　no　　longer。
  Nothing　that　depended　upon　the　stars　was　more　important　than　decisions　　in　time　of　war。　The　same　Bonatto　procured　for　the　great　Ghibelline　　leader　Guido　da　Montefeltro　a　series　of　victories；　by　telling　him　the　　propitious　hour　for　marching。　When　Montefeltro　was　no　longer　　accompanied　by　him　he　lost　the　courage　to　maintain　his　despotism；　and　　entered　a　Minorite　monastery；　where　he　lived　as　a　monk　for　many　years　　till　his　death。　In　the　war　with　Pisa　in　1362；　the　Florentines　　commissioned　their　astrologer　to　fix　the　hour　for　the　march；　and　almost　　came　too　late　through　suddenly　receiving　orders　to　take　a　circuitous　　route　through　the　city。　On　former　occasions　they　had　marched　out　by　the　　Via　di　Borgo　Santi　Apostoli；　and　the　campaign　had　been　unsuccessful。　It　　was　clear　that　there　was　some　bad　omen　connected　with　the　exit　through　　this　street　against　Pisa；　and　consequently　the　army　was　now　led　out　by　　the　Porta　Rossa。　But　as　the　tents　stretched　out　there　to　dry　had　not　　been　taken　away；　the　flagsanother　bad　omenhad　to　be　lowered。　The　　influence　of　astrology　in　war　was　confirmed　by　the　fact　that　nearly　all　　the　Condottieri　believed　in　it。　Jacopo　Caldora　was　cheerful　in　the　most　　serious　illness；　knowing　that　he　was　fated　to　fall　in　battle；　which　in　　fact　happened。　Bartolommeo　Alviano　was　convinced　that　his　wounds　in　the　　head　were　as　much　a　gift　of　the　stars　as　his　military　command。　Niccolo　　Orsini…Pitigliano　asked　the　physicist　and　astrologer　Alessandro　　Benedetto　to　fix　a　favourable　hour　for　the　conclusion　of　his　bargain　　with　Venice。　When　the　Florentines　on　June　1；　1498；　solemnly　invested　　their　new　Condottiere　Paolo　Vitelli　with　his　office；　the　Marshal's　　staff　which　they　handed　him　was；　at　his　own　wish；　decorated　with　　pictures　of　the　constellations。
  Sometimes　it　is　not　easy　to　make　out　whether　｝n　important　political　　events　the　stars　were　questioned　beforehand；　or　whether　the　astrologers　　were　simply　impelled　afterwards　by　curiosity　to　find　out　the　　constellation　which　decided　the　result。　When　Giangaleazzo　Visconti　by　a　　master…stroke　of　policy　took　prisoner　his　uncle　Bernabo；　with　the　　latter's　family　（1385）；　we　are　told　by　a　contemporary　that　Jupiter；　　Saturn　and　Mars　stood　in　the　house　of　the　Twins；　but　we　cannot　say　if　　the　deed　was　resolved　on　in　consequence。　It　is　also　probable　that　the　　advice　of　the　astrologers　was　often　determined　by　political　calculation　　not　less　than　by　the　course　of　the　planets。
  All　Europe；　through　the　latter　part　of　the　Middle　Ages；　had　allowed　　itself　to　be　terrified　by　predictions　of　plagues；　wars；　floods；　and　　earthquakes；　and　in　this　respect　Italy　was　by　no　means　behind　other　　countries。　The　unlucky　year　1494；　which　for　ever　opened　the　gates　of　　Italy　to　the　stranger；　was　undeniably　ushered　in　by　many　prophecies　of　　misfortuneonly　we　cannot　say　whether　such　prophecies　were　not　ready　　for　each　and　every　year。
  This　mode　of　thought　was　extended　with　thorough　consistency　into　　regions　where　we　should　hardly　expect　to　meet　with　it。　If　the　whole　　outward　and　spiritual　life　of　the　individual　is　determined　by　the　facts　　of　his　birth；　the　same　law　also　governs　groups　of　individuals　and　　historical　products　that　is　to　say；　nations　and　religions；　and　as　the　　constellation　of　these　things　changes；　so　do　the　things　themselves。　The　　idea　that　each　religion　has　its　day；　first　came　into　Italian　culture　in　　connection　with　these　astrological　beliefs。　The　conjunction　of　Jupiter　　with　Saturn　brought　forth；　we　are　told；　the　faith　of　Israel；　that　of　　Jupiter　and　Mars；　the　Chaldean；　with　the　Sun；　the　Egyptian；　with　Venus；　　the　Mohammedan；　with　Mercury；　the　Christian；　and　the　conjunction　of　　Jupiter　with　the　Moon　will　one　day　bring　forth　the　religion　of　　Antichrist。　Cecco　d'Ascoli　had　already　blasphemously　calculated　the　　nativity　of　Christ；　and　deduced　from　it　his　death　upon　the　Cross。　For　　this　he　was　burnt　at　the　stake　in　1327；　at　Florence。　Doctrines　of　this　　sort　ended　by　simply　darkening　men's　whole　perceptions　of　spiritual　　things。
  So　much　more　wort