hese　churches　　themselves。
  It　is　well　known　how　Luther　was　scandalized　by　the　irreverence　with　　which　the　priests　in　Rome　said　Mass。　And　at　the　same　time　the　feasts　of　　the　Church　were　celebrated　with　a　taste　and　magnificence　of　which　　Northern　countries　had　no　conception。　It　looks　as　if　this　most　　imaginative　of　nations　was　easily　tempted　to　neglect　everyday　things；　　and　as　easily　captivated　by　anything　extraordinary。
  It　is　to　this　excess　of　imagination　that　we　must　attribute　the　epidemic　　of　religious　revivals　upon　which　we　shall　again　say　a　few　words。　They　　must　be　clearly　distinguished　from　the　excitement　called　forth　by　the　　great　preachers。　They　were　rather　due　to　general　public　calamities；　or　　to　the　dread　of　such。
  In　the　Middle　Ages　all　Europe　was　from　time　to　time　flooded　by　these　　great　tides；　which　carried　away　whole　peoples　in　their　waves。　The　　Crusades　and　the　Flagellant　revival　are　instances。　Italy　took　part　in　　both　of　these　movements。　The　first　great　companies　of　flagellants　　appeared；　immediately　after　the　fall　of　Ezzelino　and　his　house；　in　the　　neighbourhood　of　the　same　Perugia　which　has　been　already　spoken　of　as　　the　headquarters　of　the　revivalist　preachers。　Then　followed　the　　flagellants　of　1310　and　1334；　and　then　the　great　pilgrimage　without　　encouraging　in　the　year　1349；　which　Corio　has　recorded。　It　is　not　　impossible　that　the　Jubilees　were　founded　partly　in　order　to　regulate　　and　render　harmless　this　sinister　passion　for　vagabondage　which　seized　　on　the　whole　populations　at　times　of　religious　excitement。　The　great　　sanctuaries　of　Italy；　such　as　Loreto　and　others；　had　meantime　become　　famous；　and　no　doubt　diverted　a　certain　part　of　this　enthusiasm。
  But　terrible　crises　had　still　at　a　much　later　time　the　power　to　　reawaken　the　glow　of　mediaeval　penitence；　and　the　conscience　…　stricken　　people；　often　still　further　appalled　by　signs　and　wonders；　sought　to　　move　the　pity　of　Heaven　by　wailings　and　scourgings。　So　it　was　at　　Bologna　when　the　plague　came　in　1457；　and　so　in　1496　at　a　time　of　　internal　discord　at　Siena）　to　mention　two　only　out　of　countless　　instances。　No　more　moving　scene　can　be　imagined　than　that　which　we　read　　of　at　Milan　in　1529）　when　famine；　plague；　and　war　conspired　with　　Spanish　extortion　to　reduce　the　city　to　the　lowest　depths　of　despair。　　It　chanced　that　the　monk　who　had　the　ear　of　the　people；　Fra　Tomasso　　Nieto；　was　himself　a　Spaniard。　The　Host　was　borne　along　in　a　novel　　fashion；　amid　barefooted　crowds　of　old　and　young。　It　was　placed　on　a　　decorated　bier；　which　rested　on　the　shoulders　of　four　priests　in　linen　　garmentsan　imitation　of　the　Ark　of　the　Covenant　which　the　children　of　　Israel　once　carried　round　the　walls　of　Jericho。　Thus　did　the　afflicted　　people　of　Milan　remind　their　ancient　God　of　His　old　covenant　with　man；　　and　when　the　procession　again　entered　the　cathedral；　and　it　seemed　as　　if　the　vast　building　must　fall　in　with　the　agonized　cry　of　　'Misericordia！'；　many　who　stood　there　may　have　believed　that　the　　Almighty　would　indeed　subvert　the　laws　of　nature　and　of　history；　and　　send　a　miraculous　deliverance。
  There　was　one　government　in　Italy；　that　of　Duke　Ercole　I　of　Ferrara；　　which　assumed　the　direction　of　public　feeling；　and　compelled　the　　popular　revivals　to　move　in　regular　channels。　At　the　time　when　　Savonarola　was　powerful　in　Florence；　and　the　movement　which　he　began　　spread　far　and　wide　among　the　population　of　Central　Italy；　the　people　　of　Ferrara　voluntarily　entered　on　a　general　fast　（at　the　beginning　of　　1496）。　A　Lazarist　announced　from　the　pulpit　the　approach　of　a　season　of　　war　and　famine　such　as　the　world　had　never　seen；　but　the　Madonna　had　　assured　some　pious　people　that　these　evils　might　be　avoided　by　fasting。　　Upon　this；　the　court　itself　had　no　choice　but　to　fast；　but　it　took　the　　conduct　of　the　public　devotions　into　its　own　hands。　On　Easter　Day；　the　　3rd　of　April；　a　proclamation　on　morals　and　religion　was　published；　　forbidding　blasphemy；　prohibiting　games；　sodomy；　concubinage；　the　　letting　of　houses　to　prostitutes　or　panders；　and　the　opening　of　all　　shops　on　feast　days；　excepting　those　of　the　bakers　and　greengrocers。　　The　Jews　and　Moors；　who　had　taken　refuge　from　the　Spaniards　at　Ferrara；　　were　now　again　compelled　to　wear　the　yellow　O　upon　the　breast。　　Contraveners　were　threatened；　not　only　with　the　punishments　already　　provided　by　law；　but　also　'with　such　severer　penalties　as　the　Duke　　might　think　good　to　inflict。'　After　this；　the　Duke　and　the　court　went　　several　days　in　succession　to　hear　sermons　in　church；　and　on　the　10th　　of　April　all　the　Jews　in　Ferrara　were　compelled　to　do　the　same。　On　the　　3rd　of　May；　the　director　of　police；　Zampante；　sent　the　crier　to　　announce　that　whoever　had　given　money　to　the　police…officers　in　order　　not　to　be　denounced　as　a　blasphemer；　might；　if　he　came　forward；　have　it　　back　with　a　further　indemnification。　These　wicked　officers；　he　said；　　had　extorted　as　much　as　two　or　three　ducats　from　innocent　persons　by　　threatening　to　lodge　an　information　against　them。　They　had　then　　mutually　informed　against　one　another；　and　so　had　all　found　their　way　　into　prison。　But　as　the　money　had　been　paid　precisely　in　order　not　to　　have　to　do　with　Zampante；　it　is　probable　that　his　proclamation　induced　　few　people　to　come　forward。　In　the　year　1500；　after　the　fall　of　　Lodovico　il　Moro；　when　a　similar　outbreak　of　popular　feeling　took　　place；　Ercole　ordered　a　series　of　nine　processions；　in　which　there　were　　4；000　children　dressed　in　white；　bearing　the　standard　of　Jesus。　He　　himself　rode　on　horseback；　as　he　could　not　walk　without　difficulty。　An　　edict　was　afterwards　published　of　the　same　kind　as　that　of　1496。　It　is　　well　known　how　many　churches　and　monasteries　were　built　by　this　ruler。　　He　even　sent　for　a　live　saint；　the　Suor　Colomba；　shortly　before　he　　married　his　son　Alfonso　to　Lucrezia　Borgia　（1502）。　A　special　messenger　　fetched　the　saint　with　fifteen　other　nuns　from　Viterbo；　and　the　Duke　　himself　conducted　her　on　her　arrival　at　Ferrara　into　a　convent　prepared　　for　her　reception。　We　shall　probably　do　him　no　injustice　if　we　　attribute　all　these　measures　very　largely　to　political　calculation。　To　　the　conception　of　government　formed　by　the　House　of　Este；　this　　employment　of　religion　for　the　ends　of　statecraft　belongs　by　a　kind　of　　logical　necessity。
  Religion　and　the　Spirit　of　the　Renaissance
  But　in　order　to　reach　a　definite　conclusion　with　regard　to　the　　religious　sense　of　the　men　of　this　period；　we　must　adopt　a　different　　method。　From　their　intellectual　attitude　in　general；　we　can　infer　their　　relation　both　to　the　divine　idea　and　to　the　existing　religion　of　their　　age。
  These　modern　men；　the　representatives　of　the　culture　of　Italy；　were　　born　with　the　same　religious　instincts　as　other　mediaeval　Europeans。　　But　their　powerful　individuality　made　them　in　religion；　as　in　other　　matters；　altogether　subjective；　and　the　intense　charm　which　the　　discovery　of　the　inner　and　outer　universe　exercised　upon　them　rendered　　them　markedly　worldly。　In　the　rest　of　Europe　religion　remained；　till　a　　much　later　period。　something　given　from　without；　and　in　practical　life　　egotism　and　sensuality　alternated　with　devotion　and　repentance。　The　　latter　had　no　spiritual　competitors）　as　in　Italy；　or　only　to　a　far　　smaller　extent。
  Further；　the　close　and　frequent　relations　of　Italy　with　Byzantium　and　　the　Mohammedan　peoples　had　produced　a　dispassionate　tolerance　which　　weakened　the　ethnographical　conception　of　a　privileged　Christendom。　And　　when　classical　antiquity　with　its　men　and　institutions　became　an　ideal　　of　life）　as　well　as　the　greatest　of　historical　memories；　ancient　　speculation　and　skepticism　obtained　in　many　cases　a　complete　mastery　　over　the　minds　of　Italians。　Since；　again；　the　Italians　were　the　first　　modern　people　of　Europe　who　gave　themselves　boldly　to　speculations　on　　freedom　and　necessity；　and　since　they　did　so　under　violent　and　lawless　　political　circumstances；　in　which　evil　seemed　often　to　win　a　splendid　　and　lasting　victory；　their　belief　in　God　began　to　waver；　and　their　view　　of　the　government　of　the　world　became　fatalistic。　And　when　their　　passionate　natures　refused　to　rest　in　the　sense　of　uncertainty；　they　　made　a　shift　to　help　themselves　out　with　ancient；　Oriental；　or　medieval　　superstition。　They　took　to　astrology　and　magic。
  Finally；　these　intellectual　giants；　these　representatives　of　the　　Renaissance；　show；　in　respect　to　religion；　a　quality　which　is　common　in　　youthful　natures。　Distinguishing　keenly　between　good　and　evil；　they　yet　　are　conscious　of　no　sin。　Every　disturbance　of　their　inward　harmony　they　　feel　themselves　able　to　make　good　out　of　the　plastic　resources　of　their　　own　nature；　and　therefore　they　feel　no　repentance。　The　need　of　　salvation　thus　becomes　felt　more　and　more　dimly；　while　the　ambitions　　and　the　intellectual　activity　of　the　present　either　shut　out　altogether　　every　thought　of　a　world　to　come；　or　else　caused　it　to　assume　a　poetic　　instead　of　a　dogmatic　form。
  When　we　look　on　all　this　as　pervaded　and　often　perverted　by　the　all…　powerful　Italian　imagination；　we　obtain　a　picture　of　that　time　which　is　　certainly　more　in　accordance　with　truth　than　are　vague　declarations　　against　modern　paganism。　And　closer　investigation　often　reveals　to　us