ousness　of　the　people。　The　eighth　eclogue　of　Battista　　Mantovano；　which　has　already　been　quoted　elsewhere；　contains　the　prayer　　of　a　peasant　to　the　Madonna；　in　which　she　is　called　upon　as　the　special　　patroness　of　all　rustic　and　agricultural　interests。　And　what　　conceptions　they　were　which　the　people　formed　of　their　protectress　in　　heaven。　What　was　in　the　mind　of　the　Florentine　woman　who　gave　'ex　voto'　　a　keg　of　wax　to　the　Annunziata；　because　her　lover；　a　monk；　had　　gradually　emptied　a　barrel　of　wine　without　her　absent　husband　finding　　it　out。　Then；　too；　as　still　in　our　own　days；　different　departments　of　　human　life　were　presided　over　by　their　respective　patrons。
  The　attempt　has　often　been　made　to　explain　a　number　of　the　commonest　　rites　of　the　Catholic　Church　as　remnants　of　pagan　ceremonies；　and　no　　one　doubts　that　many　local　and　popular　usages；　which　are　associated　　with　religious　festivals；　are　forgotten　fragments　of　the　old　pre…　Christian　faiths　of　Europe。　In　Italy；　on　the　contrary；　we　find　　instances　in　which　the　affiliation　of　the　new　faith　to　the　old　seems　　consciously　recognized。　So；　for　example；　the　custom　of　setting　out　food　　for　the　dead　four　days　before　the　feast　of　the　Chair　of　St。　Peter；　that　　is　to　say；　on　February　18；　the　date　of　the　ancient　Feralia。　Many　other　　practices　of　this　kind　may　then　have　prevailed　and　have　since　then　been　　extirpated。　Perhaps　the　paradox　is　only　apparent　if　we　say　that　the　　popular　faith　in　Italy　had　a　solid　foundation　just　in　proportion　as　it　　was　pagan。
  The　extent　to　which　this　form　of　belief　prevailed　in　the　upper　classes　　can　to　a　certain　point　be　shown　in　detail。　It　had；　as　we　have　said　in　　speaking　of　the　influence　of　the　clergy；　the　power　of　custom　and　early　　impressions　on　its　side。　The　love　for　ecclesiastical　pomp　and　display　　helped　to　confirm　it；　and　now　and　then　there　came　one　of　those　　epidemics　of　revivalism；　which　few　even　among　the　scoffers　and　the　　sceptics　were　able　to　withstand。
  But　in　questions　of　this　kind　it　is　perilous　to　grasp　too　hastily　at　　absolute　results。　We　might　fancy；　for　example；　that　the　feeling　of　　educated　men　towards　the　relics　of　the　saints　would　be　a　key　by　which　　some　chambers　of　their　religious　consciousness　might　be　opened。　And　in　　fact；　some　difference　of　degree　may　be　demonstrable；　though　by　no　means　　as　clearly　as　might　be　wished。　The　Government　of　Venice　in　the　　fifteenth　century　seems　to　have　fully　shared　in　the　reverence　felt　　throughout　the　rest　of　Europe　for　the　remains　of　the　bodies　of　the　　saints。　Even　strangers　who　lived　in　Venice　found　it　well　to　adapt　　themselves　to　this　superstition。　If　we　can　judge　of　scholarly　Padua　　from　the　testimony　of　its　topographer　Michele　Savonarola；　things　must　　have　been　much　the　same　there。　With　a　mixture　of　pride　and　pious　awe；　　Michele　tells　us　how　in　times　of　great　danger　the　saints　were　heard　to　　sigh　at　night　along　the　streets　of　the　city；　how　the　hair　and　nails　on　　the　corpse　of　a　holy　nun　in　Santa　Chiara　kept　continually　growing；　and　　how　the　same　corpse。　when　any　disaster　was　impending；　used　to　make　a　　noise　and　lift　up　the　arms。　When　he　sets　to　work　to　describe　the　chapel　　of　St。　Anthony　in　the　Santo；　the　writer　loses　himself　in　ejaculations　　and　fantastic　dreams。　In　Milan　the　people　at　least　showed　a　fanatical　　devotion　to　relics；　and　when　once；　in　the　year　1517；　the　monks　of　San　　Simpliciano　were　careless　enough　to　expose　six　holy　corpses　during　　certain　alterations　of　the　high　altar；　which　event　was　followed　by　　heavy　floods　of　rain；　the　people　attributed　the　visitation　to　this　　sacrilege；　and　gave　the　monks　a　sound　beating　whenever　they　met　them　in　　the　street。　In　other　parts　of　Italy；　and　even　in　the　case　of　the　Popes　　themselves；　the　sincerity　of　this　feeling　is　much　more　dubious；　though　　here；　too；　a　positive　conclusion　is　hardly　attainable。　It　is　well　known　　amid　what　general　enthusiasm　Pius　II　solemnly　deposited　the　head　of　the　　Apostle　Andrew；　which　had　been　brought　from　Greece；　and　then　from　San
  Maura；　in　the　Church　of　St。　Peter　（1462）；　but　we　gather　from　his　own　　narrative　that　he　only　did　it　from　a　kind　of　shame；　as　so　many　princes　　were　competing　for　the　relic。　It　was　not　till　afterwards　that　the　idea　　struck　him　of　making　Rome　the　common　refuge　for　all　the　remains　of　the　　saints　which　had　been　driven　from　their　own　churches。　Under　Sixtus　IV；　　the　population　of　the　city　was　still　more　zealous　in　this　cause　than　　the　Pope　himself；　and　the　magistracy　（1483）　complained　bitterly　that　　Sixtus　had　sent　to　Louis　XI；　the　dying　King　of　France；　some　specimens　　of　the　Lateran　relics。　A　courageous　voice　was　raised　about　thin　time　at　　Bologna；　advising　the　sale　of　the　skull　of　St。　Dominic　to　the　King　of　　Spain；　and　the　application　of　the　money　to　some　useful　public　object。　　But　those　who　had　the　least　reverence　of　all　for　the　relics　were　the　　Florentines。　Between　the　decision　to　honour　their　saint；　St。　Zanobi；　　with　a　new　sarcophagus　and　the　final　execution　of　the　project　by　　Ghiberti；　ten　years　elapsed　（1432…42）　and　then　it　only　happened　by　　chance；　because　the　master　had　executed　a　smaller　order　of　the　same　　kind　with　great　skill　（1428）。
  Perhaps　through　being　tricked　by　a　cunning　Neapolitan　abbess　（1352）；　　who　sent　them　a　spurious　arm　of　the　patroness　of　the　Cathedral；　Santa　　Reparata；　made　of　wood　and　plaster；　they　began　to　get　tired　of　relics。　　Or　perhaps　it　would　be　truer　to　say　that　their　aesthetic　sense　turned　　them　away　in　disgust　from　dismembered　corpses　and　mouldy　clothes。　Or　　perhaps　their　feeling　was　rather　due　to　that　sense　of　glory　which　　thought　Dante　and　Petrarch　worthier　of　a　splendid　grave　than　all　the　　twelve　apostles　put　together。　It　is　probable　that　throughout　Italy；　　apart　from　Venice　and　from　Rome；　the　condition　of　which　latter　city　was　　exceptional；　the　worship　of　relics　had　long　been　giving　way　to　the　　adoration　of　the　Madonna；　at　all　events　to　a　greater　extent　than　　elsewhere　in　Europe；　and　in　this　fact　lies　indirect　evidence　of　an　　early　development　of　the　aesthetic　sense。
  It　may　be　questioned　whether　in　the　North；　where　the　vastest　cathedrals　　are　clearly　all　dedicated　to　Our　Lady；　and　where　an　extensive　branch　of　　Latin　and　indigenous　poetry　sang　the　praises　of　the　Mother　of　God；　a　　greater　devotion　to　her　was　impossible。　In　Italy；　however；　the　number　　of　miraculous　pictures　of　the　Virgin　was　far　greater；　and　the　part　they　　played　in　the　daily　life　of　the　people　much　more　important。　Every　town　　of　any　size　contained　a　quantity　of　them；　from　the　ancient；　or　　ostensibly　ancient；　paintings　by　St。　Luke；　down　to　the　works　of　　contemporaries；　who　not　seldom　lived　to　see　the　miracles　wrought　by　　their　own　handiwork。　The　work　of　art　was　in　these　cases　by　no　means　as　　harmless　as　Battista　Mantovano　thinks；　sometimes　it　suddenly　acquired　a　　magical　virtue。　The　popular　craving　for　the　miraculous；　especially　　strong　in　women；　may　have　been　fully　satisfied　by　these　pictures；　and　　for　this　reason　the　relics　been　less　regarded。　It　cannot　be　said　with　　certainty　how　far　the　respect　for　genuine　relics　suffered　from　the　　ridicule　which　the　novelist　aimed　at　the　spurious。　The　attitude　of　the　　educated　classes　in　Italy　towards　Mariolatry；　or　the　worship　of　the　　Virgin；　is　more　clearly　recognizable　than　towards　the　worship　of　　images。　One　cannot　but　be　struck　with　the　fact　that　in　Italian　　literature　Dante's　'Paradise'　is　the　last　poem　in　honour　of　the　Virgin；　　while　among　the　people　hymns　in　her　praise　have　been　constantly　　produced　down　to　our　own　day。　The　names　of　Sannazaro　and　Sabellico　and　　other　writers　of　Latin　poems　prove　little　on　the　other　side；　since　the　　object　with　which　they　wrote　was　chiefly　literary。　The　poems　written　in　　Italian　in　the　fifteenth　and　at　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　　centuries；　in　which　we　meet　with　genuine　religious　feeling；　such　as　the　　hymns　of　Lorenzo　the　Magnificent；　and　the　sonnets　of　Vittoria　Colonna　　and　of　Michelangelo　might　have　been　just　as　well　composed　by　　Protestants。　Besides　the　lyrical　expression　of　faith　in　God；　we　chiefly　　notice　in　them　the　sense　of　sin；　the　consciousness　of　deliverance　　through　the　death　of　Christ；　the　longing　for　a　better　world。　The　　intercessiOn　of　the　Mother　of　God　is　only　mentioned　by　the　way。　The　　same　phenomenon　is　repeated　in　the　classical　literature　of　the　French　　at　the　time　of　Louis　XIV。　Not　till　the　time　of　the　Counter…Reformation　　did　Mariolatry　reappear　in　the　higher　Italian　poetry。　Meanwhile　the　　visual　arts　had　certainly　done　their　utmost　to　glorify　the　Madonna。　It　　may　be　added　that　the　worship　of　the　saints　among　the　educated　classes　　often　took　an　essentially　pagan　form。
  We　might　thus　critically　examine　the　various　sides　of　Italian　　Catholicism　at　this　period；　and　so　establish　with　a　certain　degree　of　　probability　the　attitude　of　the　instructed　classes　towards　popular　　faith。　Yet　an　absolute　and　positive　result　cannot　be　reached。　We　meet　　with　contrasts　hard　to　explain。　While　architects；　painters；　and　　sculptors　were　working　with　restless　activity　in　and　for　the　churches；　　we　hear　at　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century　the　bitterest　　complaints　of　the　neglect　of　public　worship　and　of　these　churches　　themselves。
  It　is　well　known　how　Luther　was　scandalized　by　the　irreverence　with　　w