The　same　Guicciardini　is　of　opinion　that　we　are　in　the　dark　as　to　all　　that　is　supernatural；　that　philosophers　and　theologians　have　nothing　　but　nonsense　to　tell　us　about　it；　that　miracles　occur　in　every　religion　　and　prove　the　truth　of　none　in　particular；　and　that　all　of　them　may　be　　explained　as　unknown　phenomena　of　nature。　The　faith　which　moves　　mountains；　then　common　among　the　followers　of　Savonarola；　is　mentioned　　by　Guicciardini　as　a　curious　fact；　but　without　any　bitter　remark。
  Notwithstanding　this　hostile　public　opinion；　the　clergy　and　the　monks　　had　the　great　advantage　that　the　people　were　used　to　them；　and　that　　their　existence　was　interwoven　with　the　everyday　existence　of　all。　This　　is　the　advantage　which　every　old　and　powerful　institution　possesses。　　Everybody　had　some　cowled　or　frocked　relative；　some　prospect　of　　assistance　or　future　gain　from　the　treasure　of　the　Church；　and　in　the　　centre　of　Italy　stood　the　Court　of　Rome；　where　men　sometimes　became　　rich　in　a　moment。　Yet　it　must　never　be　forgotten　that　all　this　did　not　　hinder　people　from　writing　and　speaking　freely。　The　authors　of　the　most　　scandalous　satires　were　themselves　mostly　monks　or　beneficed　priests。　　Poggio；　who　wrote　the_Facetiae；　was　a　clergyman；　Francesco　Berni；　the　　satirist；　held　a　canonry；　Teofilo　Folengo；　the　author　of　the_Orlandino；　　was　a　Benedictine；　certainly　by　no　means　a　faithful　one；　Matteo　　Bandello；　who　held　up　his　own　order　to　ridicule；　was　a　Dominican；　and　　nephew　of　a　general　of　this　order。　Were　they　encouraged　to　write　by　the　　sense　that　they　ran　no　risks。　Or　did　they　feel　an　inward　need　to　clear　　themselves　personally　from　the　infamy　which　attached　to　their　order？　Or　　were　they　moved　by　that　selfish　pessimism　which　takes　for　its　maxim；　　'it　will　last　our　time'。　Perhaps　all　of　these　motives　were　more　or　less　　at　work。　In　the　case　of　Folengo；　the　unmistakable　influence　of　　Lutheranism　must　be　added。
  The　sense　of　dependence　on　rites　and　sacraments；　which　we　have　already　　touched　upon　in　speaking　of　the　Papacy；　is　not　surprising　among　that　　part　of　the　people　which　still　believed　in　the　Church。　Among　those　who　　were　more　emancipated；　it　testifies　to　the　strength　of　youthful　　impressions；　and　to　the　magical　force　of　traditional　symbols。　The　　universal　desire　of　dying　men　for　priestly　absolution　shows　that　the　　last　remnant　of　the　dread　of　hell　had　not；　even　in　the　case　of　one　like　　Vitellozzo；　been　altogether　extinguished。　It　would　hardly　be　possible　　to　find　a　more　instructive　instance　than　this。　The　doctrine　taught　by　　the　Church　of　the　'character　indelibilis'　of　the　priesthood；　　independently　of　the　personality　of　the　priest；　had　so　far　borne　fruit　　that　it　was　possible　to　loathe　the　individual　and　still　desire　his　　spiritual　gifts。　It　is　true；　nevertheless；　that　there　were　defiant　　natures　like　Galeotto　of　Mirandola；　who　died　unabsolved　in　1499）　after　　living　for　sixteen　years　under　the　ban　of　the　Church。　All　this　time　the　　city　lay　under　an　interdict　on　his　account；　so　that　no　mass　was　　celebrated　and　no　Christian　burial　took　place。
  A　splendid　contrast　to　all　this　is　offered　by　the　power　exercised　over　　the　nation　by　its　great　Preachers　of　Repentance。　Other　countries　of　　Europe　were　from　time　to　time　moved　by　the　words　of　saintly　monks；　but　　only　superficially；　in　comparison　with　the　periodical　upheaval　of　the　　Italian　conscience。　The　only　man；　in　fact；　who　produced　a　similar　　effect　in　Germany　during　the　fifteenth　century；　was　an　Italian；　born　in　　the　Abruzzi；　named　Giovanni　Capistrano。　Those　natures　which　bear　within　　them　this　religious　vocation　and　this　commanding　earnestness；　wore　then　　in　Northern　countries　an　intuitive　and　mystical　aspect。　In　the　South　　they　were　practical　and　expansive；　and　shared　in　the　national　gift　of　　oratorical　skill。　The　North　produced　an　'Imitation　of　Christ；'　which　　worked　silently；　at　first　only　within　the　walls　of　the　monastery；　but　　worked　for　the　ages；　the　South　produced　men　who　made　on　their　fellows　　an　immediate　and　mighty　but　passing　impression。
  This　impression　consisted　chiefly　in　the　awakening　of　the　conscience。　　The　sermons　were　moral　exhortations　free　from　abstract　notions　and　full　　of　practical　application；　rendered　more　impressive　by　the　saintly　and　　ascetic　character　of　the　preacher；　and　by　the　miracles　which；　even　　against　his　will；　the　inflamed　imagination　of　the　people　attributed　to　　him。　The　most　powerful　argument　used　was　not　the　threat　of　Hell　and　　Purgatory；　but　rather　the　living　results　of　the　'maledizione；'　the　　temporal　ruin　wrought　on　the　individual　by　the　curse　which　clings　to　　wrong…doing。　The　grieving　of　Christ　and　the　Saints　has　its　consequences　　in　this　life。　And　only　thus　could　men；　sunk　in　passion　and　guilt；　be　　brought　to　repentance　and　amendmentwhich　was　the　chief　object　of　　these　sermons。
  Among　these　preachers　were　Bernardino　da　Siena；　Alberto　da　Sarzana；　　Jacopo　della　Marca；　Giovanni　Capistrano；　Roberto　da　Lecce　and　others　j　　and　finally；　Girolamo　Savonarola。　No　prejudice　of　the　day　was　stronger　　than　that　against　the　mendicant　friar；　and　this　they　overcame。　They　　were　criticized　and　ridiculed　by　a　scornful　humanism；　but　when　they　　raised　their　voices；　no　one　gave　heed　to　the　humanists。　The　thing　was　　no　novelty；　and　the　scoffing　Florentines　had　already　in　the　fourteenth　　century　learned　to　caricature　it　whenever　it　appeared　in　the　pulpit。　　But　no　sooner　did　Savonarola　come　forward　than　he　carried　the　people　so　　triumphantly　with　him；　that　soon　all　their　beloved　art　and　culture　　melted　away　ill　the　furnace　which　he　lighted。　Even　the　grossest　　profanation　done　to　the　cause　by　hypocritical　monks；　who　got　up　an　　effect　in　the　audience　by　means　of　confederates；　could　not　bring　the　　thing　itself　into　discredit。　Men　kept　on　laughing　at　the　ordinary　　monkish　sermons；　with　their　spurious　miracles　and　manufactured　relics；　　but　did　not　cease　to　honour　the　great　and　genuine　preachers。　These　are　　a　true　speciality　of　the　fifteenth　century。
  The　Ordergenerally　that　of　St。　Francis；　and　more　particularly　the　so…　called　Observantinessent　them　out　according　as　they　were　wanted。　This　　was　commonly　the　case　when　there　was　some　important　public　or　private　　feud　in　a　city；　or　some　alarming　outbreak　of　violence；　immorality；　or　　disease。　When　once　the　reputation　of　a　preacher　was　made；　the　cities　　were　all　anxious　to　hear　him　even　without　any　special　occasion。　He　went　　wherever　his　superiors　sent　him。　A　special　form　of　this　work　was　the　　preaching　of　a　Crusade　against　the　Turks；　but　here　we　have　to　speak　　more　particularly　of　the　exhortations　to　repentance。
  The　order　of　these；　when　they　were　treated　methodically；　seems　to　have　　followed　the　customary　list　of　the　deadly　sins。　The　more　pressing；　　however；　the　occasion　is；　the　more　directly　does　the　preacher　make　for　　his　main　point。　He　begins　perhaps　in　one　of　the　great　churches　of　the　　Order；　or　in　the　cathedral。　Soon　the　largest　piazza　is　too　small　for　　the　crowds　which　throng　from　every　side　to　hear　him；　and　he　himself　can　　hardly　move　without　risking　his　life。　The　sermon　is　commonly　followed　　by　a　great　procession；　but　the　first　magistrates　of　the　city；　who　take　　him　in　their　midst；　can　hardly　save　him　from　the　multitude　of　women　who　　throng　to　kiss　his　hands　and　feet；　and　cut　off　fragments　from　his　cowl。
  The　most　immediate　consequences　which　follow　from　the　preacher's　　denunciations　of　usury；　luxury；　and　scandalous　fashions；　are　the　　opening　of　the　gaolswhich　meant　no　more　than　the　discharge　of　the　　poorest　debtorsand　the　burning　of　various　instruments　of　luxury　and　　amusement；　whether　innocent　or　not。　Among　these　are　dice；　cards；　games　　of　all　kinds；　written　incantations；　masks；　musical　instruments；　song…　books；　false　hair；　and　so　forth。　All　these　would　then　be　gracefully　　arranged　on　a　scaffold　（'talamo'）；　a　figure　of　the　devil　fastened　to　　the　top；　and　then　the　whole　set　on　fire。
  Then　came　the　turn　of　the　more　hardened　consciences。　Men　who　had　long　　never　been　near　the　confessional；　now　acknowledged　their　sins。　Ill…　gotten　gains　were　restored；　and　insults　which　might　have　borne　fruit　in　　blood　retracted。　Orators　like　Bernardino　of　Siena　entered　diligently　　into　all　the　details　of　the　daily　life　of　men；　and　the　moral　laws　which　　are　involved　in　it。　Few　theologians　nowadays　would　feel　tempted　to　give　　a　morning　sermon　'on　contracts；　restitutions；　the　public　debt　（monte）；　　and　the　portioning　of　daughters；'　like　that　which　he　once　delivered　in　　the　Cathedral　at　Florence。　Imprudent　speakers　easily　fell　into　the　　mistake　of　attacking　particular　classes；　professions；　or　offices；　with　　such　energy　that　the　enraged　hearers　proceeded　to　violence　against　　those　whom　the　preacher　had　denounced。　A　sermon　which　Bernardino　once　　preached　in　Rome　（1424）　had　another　consequence　besides　a　bonfire　of　　vanities　on　the　Capitol：　'After　this；'　we　read；　'the　witch　Finicella　　was　burnt；　because　by　her　diabolical　arts　she　had　killed　many　children　　and　bewitched　many　other　persons；　and　all　Rome　went　to　see　the　sight。'
  But　the　most　important　aim　of　the　preacher　was；　as　has　been　already　　said；　to　reconcile　enemies　and　persuade　them　to　give　up　thoughts　of　　vengeance。　Probably　this　end　was　seldom　attained　till　towards　the　close　　of　a　course　of