perjury　and　treason；　committed　not　once　but　often。　　The　most　shocking　crime　of　allthe　unnatural　attempt　on　his　own　son　　Roberto；　who　frustrated　it　with　his　drawn　daggermay　have　been　the　　result　not　merely　of　moral　corruption；　but　perhaps　of　some　magical　or　　astrological　superstition。　The　same　conjecture　has　been　made　to　account　　for　the　rape　of　the　Bishop　of　Fano　by　Pierluigi　Farnese　of　Parma；　son　　of　Paul　III。
  If　we　now　attempt　to　sum　up　the　principal　features　in　the　Italian　　character　of　that　time；　as　we　know　it　from　a　study　of　the　life　of　the　　upper　classes；　we　shall　obtain　something　like　the　following　result。　The　　fundamental　vice　of　this　character　was　at　the　same　time　a　condition　of　　its　greatness；　namely；　excessive　individualism。　The　individual　first　　inwardly　casts　off　the　authority　of　a　State　which；　as　a　fact；　is　in　　most　cases　tyrannical　and　illegitimate；　and　what　he　thinks　and　does　is；　　rightly　or　wrongly；　now　called　treason。　The　sight　of　victorious　egotism　　in　others　drives　him　to　defend　his　own　right　by　his　own　arm。　And；　while　　thinking　to　restore　his　inward　equilibrium；　he　falls；　through　the　　vengeance　which　he　executes；　into　the　hands　of　the　powers　of　darkness。　　His　love；　too；　turns　mostly　for　satisfaction　to　another　individuality　　equally　developed；　namely；　to　his　neighbor's　wife。　In　face　of　all　　objective　facts；　of　laws　and　restraints　of　whatever　kind；　he　retains　　the　feeling　of　his　own　sovereignty；　and　in　each　single　instance　forms　　his　decision　independently；　according　as　honour　or　interest；　passion　or　　calculation；　revenge　or　renunciation；　gain　the　upper　hand　in　his　own　　mind。
  If　therefore　egotism　in　its　wider　as　well　as　narrower　sense　is　the　root　　and　fountain　of　all　evil；　the　more　highly　developed　Italian　was　for　　this　reason　more　inclined　to　wickedness　than　the　members　of　other　　nations　of　that　time。
  But　this　individual　development　did　not　through　any　fault　of　his　own；　　but　rather　through　necessity。　It　did　not　come　upon　him　alone；　but　also；　　and　chiefly；　by　means　of　Italian　culture；　upon　the　other　nations　of　　Europe；　and　has　constituted　since　then　the　higher　atmosphere　which　they　　breathe。　In　itself　it　is　neither　good　nor　bad；　but　necessary；　within　it　　has　grown　up　a　modern　standard　of　good　and　evil　a　sense　of　moral　　responsibilitywhich　is　essentially　different　from　that　which　was　　familiar　to　the　Middle　Ages。
  But　the　Italian　of　the　Renaissance　had　to　bear　the　first　mighty　surging　　of　a　new　age。　Through　his　gifts　and　his　passions；　he　has　become　the　　most　characteristic　representative　of　all　the　heights　and　all　the　　depths　of　his　time。　By　the　side　of　profound　corruption　appeared　human　　personalities　of　the　noblest　harmony；　and　an　artistic　splendor　which　　shed　upon　the　life　of　man　a　lustre　which　neither　antiquity　nor　　medievalism　could　or　would　bestow　upon　it。
  Religion　in　Daily　Life
  The　morality　of　a　people　stands　in　the　closest　connection　with　its　　consciousness　of　God；　that　is　to　say；　with　its　firmer　or　weaker　faith　　in　the　divine　government　of　the　world；　whether　this　faith　looks　on　the　　world　as　destined　to　happiness　or　to　misery　and　speedy　destruction。　The　　infidelity　then　prevalent　in　Italy　is　notorious；　and　whoever　takes　the　　trouble　to　look　about　for　proofs；　will　find　them　by　the　hundred。　Our　　present　task；　here　as　elsewhere；　is　to　separate　and　discriminate；　　refraining　from　an　absolute　and　final　verdict。
  The　belief　in　God　at　earlier　times　had　its　source　and　chief　support　in　　Christianity　and　the　outward　symbol　of　Christianity；　the　Church。　When　　the　Church　became　corrupt；　men　ought　to　have　drawn　a　distinction；　and　　kept　their　religion　in　spite　of　all。　But　this　is　more　easily　said　than　　done。　It　is　not　every　people　which　is　calm　enough；　or　dull　enough；　to　　tolerate　a　lasting　contradiction　between　a　principle　and　its　outward　　expression。　But　history　does　not　record　a　heavier　responsibility　than　　that　which　rests　upon　the　decaying　Church。　She　set　up　as　absolute　　truth；　and　by　the　most　violent　means；　a　doctrine　which　she　had　　distorted　to　serve　her　own　aggrandizement。　Safe　in　the　sense　of　her　　inviolability；　she　abandoned　herself　to　the　most　scandalous　profligacy；　　and；　in　order　to　maintain　herself　in　this　state；　she　levelled　mortal　　blows　against　the　conscience　and　the　intellect　of　nations；　and　drove　　multitudes　of　the　noblest　spirits；　whom　she　had　inwardly　estranged；　　into　the　arms　of　unbelief　and　despair。
  Here　we　are　met　by　the　question：　Why　did　not　Italy；　intellectually　so　　great；　react　more　energetically　against　the　hierarchy；　why　did　she　not　　accomplish　a　reformation　like　that　which　occurred　in　Germany；　and　　accomplish　it　at　an　earlier　date？
  A　plausible　answer　has　been　Italian　mind；　we　are　told；　never　of　the　　hierarchy；　while　the　origin　given　to　this　question。　The　went　further　　than　the　denial　and　the　vigor　of　the　German　Reformation　was　due　to　its　　positive　religious　doctrines；　most　of　all　to　the　doctrines　of　　justification　by　faith　and　of　the　inefficacy　of　good　works。
  It　is　certain　that　these　doctrines　only　worked　upon　Italy　through　　Germany；　and　this　not　till　the　power　of　Spain　was　sufficiently　great　to　　root　them　out　without　difficulty；　partly　by　itself　and　partly　by　means　　of　the　Papacy；　and　its　instruments。105　Nevertheless；　in　the　earlier　　religious　movements　of　Italy；　from　the　Mystics　of　the　thirteenth　　century　down　to　Savonarola；　there　was　a　large　amount　of　positive　　religious　doctrine　which；　like　the　very　definite　Christianity　of　the　　Huguenots；　failed　to　achieve　success　only　because　circumstances　were　　against　it。　Mighty　events　like　the　Reformation　elude；　as　respects　their　　details；　their　outbreak　and　their　development；　the　deductions　of　the　　philosophers；　however　clearly　the　necessity　of　them　as　a　whole　may　be　　demonstrated。　The　movements　of　the　human　spirit；　its　sudden　flashes；　　its　expansions　and　its　pauses；　must　for　ever　remain　a　mystery　to　our　　eyes；　since　we　can　but　know　this　or　that　of　the　forces　at　work　in　it；　　never　all　of　them　together。
  The　feeling　of　the　upper　and　middle　classes　in　Italy　with　regard　to　the　　Church　at　the　time　when　the　Renaissance　culminated；　was　compounded　of　　deep　and　contemptuous　aversion；　of　acquiescence　in　the　outward　　ecclesiastical　customs　which　entered　into　daily　life；　and　of　a　sense　of　　dependence　on　sacraments　and　ceremonies。　The　great　personal　influence　　of　religious　preachers　may　be　added　as　a　fact　characteristic　of　Italy。
  That　hostility　to　the　hierarchy；　which　displays　itself　more　especially　　from　the　time　of　Dante　onwards　in　Italian　literature　and　history；　has　　been　fully　treated　by　several　writers。　We　have　already　said　something　　of　the　attitude　of　public　opinion　with　regard　to　the　Papacy。　Those　who　　wish　for　the　strongest　evidence　which　the　best　authorities　offer　us；　　can　find　it　in　the　famous　passages　of　Machiavelli's　'Discorsi；'　and　in　　the　unmutilated　edition　of　Guicciardini。　Outside　the　Roman　Curia；　some　　respect　seems　to　have　been　felt　for　the　best　men　among　the　bishops；　and　　for　many　of　the　parochial　clergy。　On　the　other　hand；　the　mere　holders　　of　benefices；　the　canons　and　the　monks　were　held　in　almost　universal　　suspicion；　and　were　often　the　objects　of　the　most　scandalous　　aspersions；　extending　to　the　whole　of　their　order。
  It　has　been　said　that　the　monks　were　made　the　scapegoats　for　the　whole　　clergy；　for　the　reason　that　none　but　they　could　be　ridiculed　without　　danger。　But　this　is　certainly　incorrect。　They　are　introduced　so　　frequently　in　the　novels　and　comedies；　because　these　forms　of　　literature　need　fixed　and　well…known　types　where　the　imagination　of　the　　reader　can　easily　fill　up　an　outline。　Besides　which；　the　novelists　do　　not　as　a　fact　spare　the　secular　clergy。　In　the　third　place；　we　have　　abundant　proof　in　the　rest　of　Italian　literature　that　men　could　speak　　boldly　enough　about　the　Papacy　and　the　Court　of　Rome。　In　works　of　　imagination　we　cannot　expect　to　find　criticism　of　this　kind。　Fourthly；　　the　monks；　when　attacked；　were　sometimes　able　to　take　a　terrible　　vengeance。
  It　is　nevertheless　true　that　the　monks　were　the　most　unpopular　class　of　　all；　and　that　they　were　reckoned　a　living　proof　of　the　worthlessness　of　　conventual　life；　of　the　whole　ecclesiastical　organization；　of　the　　system　of　dogma；　and　of　religion　altogether；　according　as　men　pleased；　　rightly　or　wrongly；　to　draw　their　conclusions。　We　may　also　assume　that　　Italy　retained　a　clearer　recollection　of　the　origin　of　the　two　great　　mendicant　orders　than　other　countries；　and　had　not　forgotten　that　they　　were　the　chief　agents　in　the　reaction　against　what　is　called　the　heresy　　of　the　thirteenth　century；　that　is　to　say；　against　an　unruly　and　　vigorous　movement　of　the　modern　Italian　spirit。　And　that　spiritual　　police　which　was　permanently　entrusted　to　the　Dominicans　certainly　　never　excited　any　other　feeling　than　secret　hatred　and　contempt。
  After　reading　the　'Decameron'　and　the　novels　of　Franco　Sacchetti；　we　　might　imagine　that　the　vocabulary　of　abuse　directed　at　the　monks　and　　nuns　was　exhausted。　But　towards　the　time　of　the　Reformation　this　abuse　　became　still　fiercer。　To　say　nothing　of　Aretino；　who　in　the　　'Ragionamenti'　uses　conventual　life　merely　as　a　pretext　for　giving　free　　play　to　his　own　poisonous　nature；　we　may　quote　one　author　as　ty