communicates　with　his　mistress；　the　boxes　with　cushions　and　sweetmeats　　in　which　he　can　be　hidden　and　carried　out　of　danger。　The　deceived　　husband　is　described　sometimes　as　a　fool　to　be　laughed　at；　sometimes　as　　a　bloodthirsty　avenger　of　his　honour；　there　is　no　third　situation　　except　when　the　woman　is　painted　as　wicked　and　cruel；　and　the　husband　　or　lover　is　the　innocent　victim。　It　may　be　remarked；　however；　that　　narratives　of　the　latter　kind　are　not　strictly　speaking　novels；　but　　rather　warning　examples　taken　from　real　life。
  When　in　the　course　of　the　sixteenth　century　Italian　life　fell　more　and　　more　under　Spanish　influence；　the　violence　of　the　means　to　which　　jealousy　had　recourse　perhaps　increased。　But　this　new　phase　must　be　　distinguished　from　the　punishment　of　infidelity　which　existed　before；　　and　which　was　founded　in　the　spirit　of　the　Italian　Renaissance　itself。　　As　the　influence　of　Spain　declined；　these　excesses　of　jealousy　declined　　also；　till　towards　the　close　of　the　seventeenth　century　they　had　wholly　　disappeared；　and　their　place　was　taken　by　that　indifference　which　　regarded　the　'Cicisbeo'　as　an　indispensable　figure　in　every　household；　　and　took　no　offence　at　one　or　two　contemporary　lovers　（'Patiti'）。
  But　who　can　undertake　to　compare　the　vast　sum　of　wickedness　which　all　　these　facts　imply；　with　what　happened　in　other　countries？　Was　the　　marriage…tie；　for　instance；　really　more　sacred　in　France　during　the　　fifteenth　century　than　in　Italy？　The　'fabliaux'　and　farces　would　lead　　us　to　doubt　it；　and　rather　incline　us　to　think　that　unfaithfulness　was　　equally　common；　though　its　tragic　consequences　were　less　frequent；　　because　the　individual　was　less　developed　and　his　claims　were　less　　consciously　felt　than　in　Italy。　More　evidence；　however；　in　favour　of　　the　Germanic　peoples　lies　in　the　fact　of　the　social　freedom　enjoyed　　among　them　by　girls　and　women；　which　impressed　Italian　travellers　so　　pleasantly　in　England　and　in　the　Netherlands。　And　yet　we　must　not　　attach　too　much　importance　to　this　fact。　Unfaithfulness　was　doubtless　　very　frequent；　and　in　certain　cases　led　to　a　sanguinary　vengeance。　We　　have　only　to　remember　how　the　northern　princes　of　that　time　dealt　with　　their　wives　on　the　first　suspicion　of　infidelity。
  But　it　was　not　merely　the　sensual　desire；　not　merely　the　vulgar　　appetite　of　the　ordinary　man；　which　trespassed　upon　forbidden　ground　　among　the　Italians　of　that　day；　but　also　the　passion　of　the　best　and　　noblest；　and　this；　not　only　because　the　unmarried　girl　did　not　appear　　in　society；　but　also　because　the　man；　in　proportion　to　the　completeness　　of　his　own　nature；　felt　himself　most　strongly　attracted　by　the　woman　　whom　marriage　had　developed。　These　are　the　men　who　struck　the　loftiest　　notes　of　lyrical　poetry；　and　who　have　attempted　in　their　treatises　and　　dialogues　to　give　us　an　idealized　image　of　the　devouring　passion　'l'amor　divino。'　When　they　complain　of　the　cruelty　of　the　winged　god；　　they　are　not　only　thinking　of　the　coyness　or　hard…heartedness　of　the　　beloved　one；　but　also　of　the　unlawfulness　of　the　passion　itself。　They　　seek　to　raise　themselves　above　this　painful　consciousness　by　that　　spiritualization　of　love　which　found　a　support　in　the　Platonic　doctrine　　of　the　soul；　and　of　which　Pietro　Bembo　is　the　most　famous　　representative。　His　thoughts　on　this　subject　are　set　forth　by　himself　　in　the　third　book　of　the　'Asolani；'　and　indirectly　by　Castiglione；　who　　puts　in　his　mouth　the　splendid　speech　with　which　the　fourth　book　of　the　　'Cortigiano'　concludes。　Neither　of　these　writers　was　a　stoic　in　his　　conduct；　but　at　that　time　it　meant　something　to　be　at　once　a　famous　and　　a　good　man；　and　this　praise　must　be　accorded　to　both　of　them；　their　　contemporaries　took　what　these　men　said　to　be　a　true　expression　of　　their　feeling；　and　we　have　not　the　right　to　despise　it　as　affectation。　　Those　who　take　the　trouble　to　study　the　speech　in　the　'Cortigiano'　will　　see　how　poor　an　idea　of　it　can　be　given　by　an　extract。　There　were　then　　living　in　Italy　several　distinguished　women；　who　owed　their　celebrity　　chiefly　to　relations　of　this　kind；　such　as　Giulia　Gonzaga；　Veronica　da　　Correggio；　and；　above　all；　Vittoria　Colonna。　The　land　of　profligates　　and　scoffers　respected　these　women　and　this　sort　of　loveand　what　more　　can　be　said　in　their　favour？　We　cannot　tell　how　far　vanity　had　to　do　　with　the　matter；　how　far　Vittoria　was　flattered　to　hear　around　her　the　　sublimated　utterances　of　hopeless　love　from　the　most　famous　men　in　　Italy。　If　the　thing　was　here　and　there　a　fashion；　it　was　still　no　　trifling　praise　for　Vittoria　that　she；　as　least；　never　went　out　of　　fashion；　and　in　her　latest　years　produced　the　most　profound　　impressions。　It　was　long　before　other　countries　had　anything　similar　to　　show。
  In　the　imagination　then；　which　governed　this　people　more　than　any　　other；　lies　one　general　reason　why　the　course　of　every　passion　was　　violent；　and　why　the　means　used　for　the　gratification　of　passion　were　　often　criminal。　There　is　a　violence　which　cannot　control　itself　because　　it　is　born　of　weakness；　but　in　Italy　we　find　what　is　the　corruption　of　　powerful　natures。　Sometimes　this　corruption　assumes　a　colossal　shape；　　and　crime　seems　to　acquire　almost　a　personal　existence　of　its　own。
  The　restraints　of　which　men　were　conscious　were　but　few。　Each　　individual；　even　among　the　lowest　of　the　people；　felt　himself　inwardly　　emancipated　from　the　control　of　the　State　and　its　police；　whose　title　　to　respect　was　illegitimate；　and　itself　founded　on　violence；　and　no　man　　believed　any　longer　in　the　justice　of　the　law。　When　a　murder　was　　committed；　the　sympathies　of　the　people；　before　the　circumstances　of　　the　case　were　known；　ranged　themselves　instinctively　on　the　side　of　the　　murderer。　A　proud；　manly　bearing　before　and　at　the　execution　excited　　such　admiration　that　the　narrator　often　forgets　to　tell　us　for　what　　offence　the　criminal　was　put　to　death。　But　when　we　add　to　this　inward　　contempt　of　law　and　to　the　countless　grudges　and　enmities　which　called　　for　satisfaction；　the　impunity　which　crime　enjoyed　during　times　of　　political　disturbance；　we　can　only　wonder　that　the　State　and　society　　were　not　utterly　dissolved。　Crises　of　this　kind　occurred　at　Naples；　　during　the　transition　from　the　Aragonese　to　the　French　and　Spanish　　rule；　and　at　Milan；　on　the　repeated　expulsions　and　returns　of　the　　Sforzas；　at　such　times　those　men　who　have　never　in　their　hearts　　recognized　the　bonds　of　law　and　society；　come　forward　and　give　free　　play　to　their　instincts　of　murder　and　rapine。　Let　us　take；　by　way　of　　example；　a　picture　drawn　from　a　humbler　sphere。
  When　the　Duchy　of　Milan　was　suffering　from　the　disorders　which　followed　　the　death　of　Galeazzo　Maria　Sforza；　about　the　year　1480；　all　safety　　came　to　an　end　in　the　provincial　cities。　This　was　the　case　in　Parma；　　where　the　Milanese　Governor；　terrified　by　threats　of　murder；　consented　　to　throw　open　the　gaols　and　let　loose　the　most　abandoned　criminals。　　Burglary；　the　demolition　of　houses；　public　assassination　and　murders；　　were　events　of　everyday　occurrence。　At　first　the　authors　of　these　deeds　　prowled　about　singly；　and　masked；　soon　large　gangs　of　armed　men　went　to　　work　every　night　without　disguise。　Threatening　letters；　satires；　and　　scandalous　jests　circulated　freely；　and　a　sonnet　in　ridicule　of　the　　Government　seems　to　have　roused　its　indignation　far　more　than　the　　frightful　condition　of　the　city。　In　many　churches　the　sacred　vessels　　with　the　host　were　stolen；　and　this　fact　is　characteristic　of　the　　temper　which　prompted　these　outrages。　It　is　impossible　to　say　what　　would　happen　now　in　any　country　of　the　world；　if　the　government　and　　police　ceased　to　act；　and　yet　hindered　by　their　presence　the　　establishment　of　a　provisional　authority；　but　what　then　occurred　in　　Italy　wears　a　character　of　its　own；　through　the　great　share　which　the　　personal　hatred　and　revenge　had　in　it。　The　impression；　indeed；　which　　Italy　at　this　period　makes　on　us　is；　that　even　in　quiet　times　great　　crimes　were　commoner　than　in　other　countries。　We　may；　it　is　true；　be　　misled　by　the　fact　that　we　have　far　fuller　details　on　such　matters　here　　than　elsewhere；　and　that　the　same　force　of　imagination；　which　gives　a　　special　character　to　crimes　actually　committed；　causes　much　to　be　　invented　which　never　really　happened。　The　amount　of　violence　was　　perhaps　as　great　elsewhere。　It　is　hard　to　say　for　certain；　whether　in　　the　year　1500　men　were　any　safer；　whether　human　life　was　any　better　　protected；　in　powerful；　wealthy　Germany；　with　its　robber　knights；　　extortionate　beggars；　and　daring　highwaymen。　But　one　thing　is　certain；　　that　premeditated　crimes；　committed　professionally　and　for　hire　by　　third　parties；　occurred　in　Italy　with　great　and　appalling　frequency。
  So　far　as　regards　brigandage；　Italy；　especially　in　the　more　fortunate　　provinces；　such　as　Tuscany；　was　certainly　not　more；　and　probably　less；　　troubled　than　the　countries　of　the　North。　But　the　figures　which　do　meet　　us　are　characteristic　of　the　country。　It　would　be　hard；　for　instance；　　to　find　elsewhere　the　case　of　a　priest；　gradually　driven　by　passion　　from　one　excess　to　another；　till　at　last　he　came　to　head　a　band　of　　robbers。　That　age　offers　us　this　example　among　others。　On　August　12；　　1495；　the　prie