t　won　the　day；　we　　cannot　tell；　and　therefore　no　human　judgement　can　estimate　with　　certainty　the　absolute　moral　value　of　the　nation。
  A　force　which　we　must　constantly　take　into　account　in　judging　of　the　　morality　of　the　more　highly　developed　Italian　of　this　period；　is　that　　of　the　imagination。　It　gives　to　his　virtues　and　vices　a　peculiar　color；　　and　under　its　influence　his　unbridled　egotism　shows　itself　in　its　most　　terrible　shape。
  The　force　of　his　imagination　explains；　for　example；　the　fact　that　he　　was　the　first　gambler　on　a　large　scale　in　modern　times。　Pictures　of　　future　wealth　and　enjoyment　rose　in　such　lifelike　colors　before　his　　eyes；　that　he　was　ready　to　hazard　everything　to　reach　them。　The　　Mohammedan　nations　would　doubtless　have　anticipated　him　in　this　　respect；　had　not　the　Koran；　from　the　beginning；　set　up　the　prohibition　　against　gambling　as　a　chief　safeguard　of　public　morals；　and　directed　　the　imagination　of　its　followers　to　the　search　after　buried　treasures。　　In　Italy；　the　passion　for　play　reached　an　intensity　which　often　　threatened　or　altogether　broke　up　the　existence　of　the　gambler。　　Florence　had　already；　at　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century；　its　　Casanova　a　certain　Buonaccorso　Pitti；　who；　in　the　course　of　his　　incessant　journeys　as　merchant；　political　agent；　diplomatist　and　　professional　gambler；　won　and　lost　sums　so　enormous　that　none　but　　princes　like　the　Dukes　of　Brabant；　Bavaria；　and　Savoy；　were　able　to　　compete　with　him。　That　great　lottery…bank；　which　was　called　the　Court　　of　Rome；　accustomed　people　to　a　need　of　excitement；　which　found　its　　satisfaction　in　games　of　hazard　during　the　intervals　between　one　　intrigue　and　another。　We　read；　for　example；　how　Franceschetto　Cibo；　in　　two　games　with　the　Cardinal　Raffaello　Riario；　lost　no　less　than　14；000　　ducats；　and　afterwards　complained　to　the　Pope　that　his　opponent　has　　cheated　him。　Italy　has　since　that　time　been　the　home　of　the　lottery。
  It　was　to　the　imagination　of　the　Italians　that　the　peculiar　character　　of　their　vengeance　was　due。　The　sense　of　justice　was；　indeed；　one　and　　the　same　throughout　Europe；　and　any　violation　of　it；　so　long　as　no　　punishment　was　inflicted；　must　have　been　felt　in　the　same　manner。　But　　other　nations；　though　they　found　it　no　easier　to　forgive；　nevertheless　　forgot　more　easily；　while　the　Italian　imagination　kept　the　picture　of　　the　wrong　alive　with　frightful　vividness。　The　fact　that；　according　to　　the　popular　morality；　the　avenging　of　blood　is　a　dutya　duty　often　　performed　in　a　way　to　make　us　shuddergives　to　this　passion　a　peculiar　　and　still　firmer　basis。　The　government　and　the　tribunals　recognize　its　　existence　and　justification；　and　only　attempt　to　keep　it　within　certain　　limits。　Even　among　the　peasantry；　we　read　of　Thyestean　banquets　and　　mutual　assassination　on　the　widest　scale。　Let　us　look　at　an　instance。
  In　the　district　of　Acquapendente　three　boys　were　watching　cattle；　and　　one　of　them　said：　'Let　us　find　out　the　way　how　people　are　hanged。'　　While　one　was　sitting　on　the　shoulders　of　the　other；　and　the　third；　　after　fastening　the　rope　round　the　neck　of　the　first；　was　tying　it　to　　an　oak；　a　wolf　came；　and　the　two　who　were　free　ran　away　and　left　the　　other　hanging。　Afterwards　they　found　him　dead；　and　buried　him。　On　the　　Sunday　his　father　came　to　bring　him　bread；　and　one　of　the　two　confessed　　what　had　happened；　and　showed　him　the　grave。　The　old　man　then　killed　　him　with　a　knife；　cut　him　up；　brought　away　the　liver；　and　entertained　　the　boy's　father　with　it　at　home。　After　dinner；　he　told　him　whose　liver　　it　was。　Hereupon　began　a　series　of　reciprocal　murders　between　the　two　　families；　and　within　a　month　thirty…six　persons　were　killed；　women　as　　well　as　men。
  And　such　'vendette；'　handed　down　from　father　to　son；　and　extending　to　　friends　and　distant　relations；　were　not　limited　to　the　lower　classes；　　but　reached　to　the　highest。　The　chronicles　and　novels　of　the　period　are　　full　of　such　instances；　especially　of　vengeance　taken　for　the　violation　　of　women。　The　classic　land　for　these　feuds　was　Romagna；　where　the　　'vendetta'　was　interwoven　with　intrigues　and　party　divisions　of　every　　conceivable　sort。　The　popular　legends　present　an　awful　picture　of　the　　savagery　into　which　this　brave　and　energetic　people　had　relapsed。　We　　are　told；　for　instance；　of　a　nobleman　at　Ravenna　who　had　got　all　his　　enemies　together　in　a　tower；　and　might　have　burned　them；　instead　of　　which　he　let　them　out；　embraced　them；　and　entertained　them　sumptuously；　　whereupon　shame　drove　them　mad；　and　they　conspired　against　him。　Pious　　and　saintly　monks　exhorted　unceasingly　to　reconciliation；　but　they　can　　scarcely　have　done　more　than　restrain　to　a　certain　extent　the　feuds　　already　established；　their　influence　hardly　prevents　the　growth　of　new　　ones。　The　novelists　sometimes　describe　to　this　effect　of　religionhow　　sentiments　of　generosity　and　forgiveness　were　suddenly　awakened；　and　　then　again　paralysed　by　the　force　of　what　had　once　been　done　and　could　　never　be　un。　done。　The　Pope　himself　was　not　always　lucky　as　a　　peacemaker。　Pope　Paul　II　desired　that　the　quarrel　between　Antonio　　Caffarello　and　the　family　of　Alberino　should　cease；　and　ordered　　Giovanni　Alberino　and　Antonio　Caffarello　to　come　before　him　bade　them　　kiss　one　another；　and　threatened　them　with　a　fine　of　2；000　ducats　if　　they　renewed　this　strife；　and　two　days　after　Antonio　was　stabbed　by　the　　same　Giacomo　Alberino；　son　of　Giovanni；　who　had　wounded　him　once　　before；　and　the　Pope　was　full　of　anger；　and　confiscated　the　goods　of　　Alberino；　and　destroyed　his　houses；　and　banished　father　and　son　from　　Rome。　The　oaths　and　ceremonies　by　which　reconciled　enemies　attempted　to　　guard　themselves　against　a　relapse；　are　sometimes　utterly　horrible。　　When　the　parties　of　the　'Nove'　and　the　'Popolari'　met　and　kissed　one　　another　by　twos　in　the　cathedral　at　Siena　on　New　Year's　Eve；　1494；　an　　oath　was　read　by　which　all　salvation　in　time　and　eternity　was　denied　to　　the　future　violator　of　the　treaty'an　oath　more　astonishing　and　　dreadful　than　had　ever　yet　been　heard。'　The　last　consolations　of　　religion　in　the　hour　of　death　were　to　turn　to　the　damnation　of　the　man　　who　should　break　it。　It　is　clear；　however；　that　such　a　ceremony　rather　　represents　the　despairing　mood　of　the　mediators　than　offers　any　real　　guarantee　of　peace；　inasmuch　as　the　truest　reconciliation　is　just　that　　one　which　has　least　need　of　it。
  This　personal　need　of　vengeance　felt　by　the　cultivated　and　highly　　placed　Italian；　resting　on　the　solid　basis　of　an　analogous　popular　　custom；　naturally　displays　itself　under　a　thousand　different　aspects；　　and　receives　the　unqualified　approval　of　public　opinion；　as　reflected　　in　the　works　of　the　novelists。　All　are　at　one　on　the　point　that；　in　the　　case　of　those　injuries　and　insults　for　which　Italian　justice　offered　no　　redress；　and　all　the　more　in　the　case　of　those　against　which　no　human　　law　can　ever　adequately　provide；　each　man　is　free　to　take　the　law　into　　his　own　hands。　Only　there　must　be　art　in　the　vengeance；　and　the　　satisfaction　must　be　compounded　of　the　material　injury　and　moral　　humiliation　of　the　offender。　A　mere　brutal；　clumsy　triumph　of　force　was　　held　by　public　opinion　to　be　no　satisfaction。　The　whole　man　with　his　　sense　of　fame　and　of　scorn；　not　only　his　fist；　must　be　victorious。
  The　Italian　of　that　time　shrank；　it　is　true；　from　no　dissimulation　in　　order　to　attain　his　ends；　but　was　wholly　free　from　hypocrisy　in　matters　　of　principle。　In　these　he　attempted　to　deceive　neither　himself　nor　　others。　Accordingly；　revenge　was　declared　with　perfect　frankness　to　be　　a　necessity　of　human　nature。　Cool…headed　people　declared　that　it　was　　then　most　worthy　of　praise　when　it　was　disengaged　from　passion；　and　　worked　simply　from　motives　of　expedience；　'in　order　that　other　men　may　　learn　to　leave　us　unharmed。'　Yet　such　instances　must　have　formed　only　a　　small　minority　in　comparison　with　those　in　which　passion　sought　an　　outlet。　This　sort　of　revenge　differs　clearly　from　the　avenging　of　　blood；　which　has　already　been　spoken　of；　while　the　latter　keeps　more　or　　less　within　the　limits　of　retaliationthe　'ius　talionis'　the　former　　necessarily　goes　much　further；　not　only　requiring　the　sanction　of　the　　sense　of　justice；　but　craving　admiration；　and　even　striving　to　get　the　　laugh　on　its　own　side。
  Here　lies　the　reason　why　men　were　willing　to　wait　so　long　for　their　　revenge。　A　'bella　vendetta'　demanded　as　a　rule　a　combination　of　　circumstances　for　which　it　was　necessary　to　wait　patiently。　The　gradual　　ripening　of　such　opportunities　is　described　by　the　novelists　with　　heartfelt　delight。
  There　is　no　need　to　discuss　the　morality　of　actions　in　which　plaintiff　　and　judge　are　one　and　the　same　person。　If　this　Italian　thirst　for　　vengeance　is　to　be　palliated　at　all；　it　must　be　by　proving　the　　existence　of　a　corresponding　national　virtue；　namely　gratitude。　The　　same　force　of　imagination　which　retains　and　magnifies　wrong　once　　suffered；　might　be　expected　also　to　keep　alive　the　memory　of　kindness　　received。　It　is　not　possible；　however；　to　prove　this　with　regard　to　the　　nation　as　a　whole；　though　traces　of　it　may　be　seen　in　the　Italian　　character　of　today。　The　gratitude　shown　by　the　inferior　classes　for　　kind　treatment；　and　the　good　memory　of　the　upper　f