ectacle。
  The　Procession；　in　the　broad；　level；　and　well…paved　streets　of　the　　Italian　cities；　was　soon　developed　into　the　'Trionfo；'　or　train　of　　masked　figures　on　foot　and　in　chariots；　the　ecclesiastical　character　of　　which　gradually　gave　way　to　the　secular。　The　pro…　cessions　at　the　　Carnival　and　at　the　feast　of　Corpus　Christi　were　alike　in　the　pomp　and　　brilliancy　with　which　they　were　conducted；　and　set　the　pattern　　afterwards　followed　by　the　royal　or　princely　progresses。　Other　nations　　were　willing　to　spend　vast　sums　of　money　on　these　shows；　but　in　Italy　　alone　do　we　find　an　artistic　method　of　treatment　which　arranged　the　　processions　as　a　harmonious　and　significative　whole。
  What　is　left　of　these　festivals　is　but　a　poor　remnant　of　what　once　　existed。　Both　religious　and　secular　displays　of　this　kind　have　　abandoned　the　dramatic　elementthe　costumespartly　from　dread　of　　ridicule；　and　partly　because　the　cultivated　classes；　which　formerly　　gave　their　whole　energies　to　these　things；　have　for　several　reasons　　lost　their　interest　in　them。　Even　at　the　Carnival；　the　great　　processions　of　masks　are　out　of　fashion。　What　still　remains；　such　as　　the　costumes　adopted　in　imitation　of　certain　religious　confraternities；　　or　even　the　brilliant　festival　of　Santa　Rosalia　at　Palermo；　shows　　clearly　how　far　the　higher　culture　of　the　country　has　withdrawn　from　　such　interests。
  The　festivals　did　not　reach　their　full　development　till　after　the　　decision　victory　of　the　modern　spirit　in　the　fifteenth　century；　unless　　perhaps　Florence　was　here；　as　in　other　things；　in　advance　of　the　rest　　of　Italy。　In　Florence；　the　several　quarters　of　the　city　were；　in　early　　times；　organized　with　a　view　to　such　exhibitions；　which　demanded　no　　small　expenditure　of　artistic　effort。　Of　this　kind　was　the　　representation　of　Hell；　with　a　scaffold　and　boats　in　the　Arno；　on　the　　1st　of　May；　1304；　when　the　Ponte　alla　Carraia　broke　down　under　the　　weight　of　the　spectators。　That　at　a　later　time　the　Florentines　used　to　　travel　through　Italy　as　directors　of　festivals　（festaiuoli）；　shows　that　　the　art　was　early　perfected　at　home。
  In　setting　forth　the　chief　points　of　superiority　in　the　Italian　　festivals　over　those　of　other　countries；　the　first　that　we　shall　have　　to　remark　is　the　developed　sense　of　individual　character…　istics；　in　　other　words；　the　capacity　to　invent　a　given　mask；　and　to　act　the　part　　with　dramatic　propriety。　Painters　and　sculptors　not　merely　did　their　　part　towards　the　decoration　of　the　place　where　the　festival　was　held；　　but　helped　in　getting　up　the　characters　themselves；　and　prescribed　the　　dress；　the　paints；　and　the　other　ornaments　to　be　used。　The　second　fact　　to　be　pointed　out　is　the　universal　familiarity　of　the　people　with　the　　poetical　basis　of　the　show。　The　Mysteries；　indeed；　were　equally　well　　understood　all　over　Europe；　since　the　biblical　story　and　the　legends　of　　the　saints　were　the　common　property　of　Christendom；　but　in　all　other　　respects　the　advantage　was　on　the　side　of　Italy。　For　the　recitations；　　whether　of　religious　or　secular　heroes；　she　possessed　a　lyrical　poetry　　so　rich　and　harmonious　that　none　could　resist　its　charm。　The　majority；　　too；　of　the　spectatorsat　least　in　the　citiesunderstood　the　meaning　　of　mythological　figures；　and　could　guess　without　much　difficulty　at　the　　allegorical　and　historical；　which　were　drawn　from　sources　familiar　to　　the　mass　of　Italians。
  This　point　needs　to　be　more　fully　discussed。　The　Middle　Ages　were　　essentially　the　ages　of　allegory。　Theology　and　philosophy　treated　their　　categories　as　independent　beings；　and　poetry　and　art　had　but　little　to　　add；　in　order　to　give　them　personality。　Here　all　the　countries　of　the　　West　were　on　the　same　level。
  Their　world　of　ideas　was　rich　enough　in　types　and　figures；　but　when　　these　were　put　into　concrete　shape；　the　costume　and　attributes　were　　likely　to　be　unintelligible　and　unsuited　to　the　popular　taste。　This；　　even　in　Italy；　was　often　the　case；　and　not　only　so　during　the　whole　　period　of　the　Renaissance；　but　down　to　a　still　later　time。　To　produce　　the　confusion；　it　was　enough　if　a　predicate　of　the　allegorical　figures　　was　wrongly　translated　by　an　attribute。　Even　Dante　is　not　wholly　free　　from　such　errors；　and；　indeed；　he　prides　himself　on　the　obscurity　of　　his　allegories　in　general。　Petrarch；　in　his　'Trionfi；'　attempts　to　give　　clear；　if　short；　descriptions　of　at　all　events　the　figures　of　Love；　of　　Chastity；　of　Death；　and　of　Fame。　Others　again　load　their　allegories　　with　inappropriate　attributes。　In　the　Satires　of　Vinciguerra；　for　　example；　Envy　is　depicted　with　rough；　iron　teeth；　Gluttony　as　biting　　its　own　lips；　and　with　a　shock　of　tangled　hair；　the　latter　probably　to　　show　its　indifference　to　all　that　is　not　meat　and　drink。　We　cannot　here　　discuss　the　bad　influence　of　these　misunderstandings　on　the　plastic　　arts。　They；　like　poetry；　might　think　themselves　fortunate　if　allegory　　could　be　expressed　by　a　mythological　figureby　a　figure　which　　antiquity　saved　from　absurdityif　Mars　might　stand　for　war；　and　Diana　　for　the　love　of　the　chase。
  Nevertheless　art　and　poetry　had　better　allegories　than　these　to　offer；　　and　we　may　assume　with　regard　to　such　figures　of　this　kind　as　appeared　　in　the　Italian　festivals；　that　the　public　required　them　to　be　clearly　　and　vividly　characteristic；　since　its　previous　training　had　fitted　it　　to　be　a　competent　critic。　Elsewhere；　particularly　at　the　Burgundian　　court；　the　most　inexpressive　figures；　and　even　mere　symbols；　were　　allowed　to　pass；　since　to　understand；　or　to　seem　to　understand　them；　　was　a　part　of　aristocratic　breeding。　On　the　occasion　of　the　famous　　'Oath　of　the　Pheasant'　in　the　year　1454；　the　beautiful　young　　horsewoman；　who　appears　as　'Queen　of　Pleasure；'　is　the　only　pleasing　　allegory。　The　huge　epergnes；　with　automatic　or　even　living　figures　　within　them；　are　either　mere　curiosities　or　are　intended　to　convey　some　　clumsy　moral　lesson。　A　naked　female　statue　guarding　a　live　lion　was　　supposed　to　represent　Constantinople　and　its　future　savior；　the　Duke　of　　Burgundy。　The　rest；　with　the　exception　of　a　Pantomime　Jason　in　　Colchisseems　either　too　recondite　to　be　understood　or　to　have　no　　sense　at　all。　Oliver　de　la　Marche；　to　whom　we　owe　the　description　of　　the　scene　（Memoires；　ch。　29）；　appeared　costumed　as　'The　Church；'　in　a　　tower　on　the　back　of　an　elephant；　and　sang　a　long　elegy　on　the　victory　　of　the　unbelievers。
  But　although　the　allegorical　element　in　the　poetry；　the　art；　and　the　　festivals　of　Italy　is　superior　both　in　good　taste　and　in　unity　of　　conception　to　what　we　find　in　other　countries；　yet　it　is　not　in　these　　qualities　that　it　is　most　characteristic　and　unique。　The　decisive　point　　of　superiority　lay　rather　in　the　fact　that；　besides　the　　personifications　of　abstract　qualities；　historical　rep…　resentatives　of　　them　were　introduced　in　great　numberthat　both　poetry　and　plastic　art　　were　accustomed　to　represent　famous　men　and　women。　The　'Divine　Comedy；'　　the　'Trionfi'　of　Petrarch；　the　'Amorosa　Visione'　of　Boccaccioall　of　　them　works　constructed　on　this　principleand　the　great　diffusion　of　　culture　which　took　place　under　the　influence　of　antiquity；　had　made　the　　nation　familiar　with　this　historical　element。　These　figures　now　　appeared　at　festivals；　either　individualized；　as　definite　masks；　or　in　　groups；　as　characteristic　attendants　on　some　leading　allegorical　　figure。　The　art　of　grouping　and　composition　was　thus　learnt　in　Italy　at　　a　time　when　the　most　splendid　exhibitions　in　other　countries　were　made　　up　of　unintelligible　symbolism　or　unmeaning　puerilities。
  Let　us　begin　with　that　kind　of　festival　which　is　perhaps　the　oldest　of　　allthe　Mysteries。　They　resembled　in　their　main　features　those　　performed　in　the　rest　of　Europe。　In　the　public　squares；　in　the　churches　　and　in　the　cloisters；　extensive　scaffolds　were　constructed；　the　upper　　story　of　which　served　as　a　Paradise　to　open　and　shut　at　will；　and　the　　ground…floor　often　as　8　Hell；　while　between　the　two　lay　the　stage　　properly　so　called；　representing　the　scene　of　all　the　earthly　events　of　　the　drama　In　Italy；　as　elsewhere；　the　biblical　or　legendary　play　often　　began　with　an　introductory　dialogue　between　Apostles；　Prophets；　Sibyls；　　Virtues；　and　Fathers　of　the　Church；　and　sometimes　ended　with　a　dance。　　As　a　matter　of　course　the　half…comic　'Intermezzi'　of　secondary　　characters　were　not　wanting　in　Italy；　yet　this　feature　was　hardly　so　　broadly　marked　as　in　northern　countries。　The　artificial　means　by　which　　figures　were　made　to　rise　and　float　in　the　airone　of　the　chief　　delights　of　these　representationswere　probably　much　better　understood　　in　Italy　than　elsewhere；　and　at　Florence　in　the　fourteenth　century　the　　hitches　in　these　performances　were　a　stock　subject　of　ridicule。　Soon　　afterwards　Brunellesco　invented　for　the　Feast　of　the　Annunciation　in　　the　Piazza　San　Felice　a　marvelous　ap…　paratus　consisting　of　a　heavenly　　globe　surrounded　by　two　circles　of　angels；　out　of　which　Gabriel　flew　　down　in　a　machine　shaped　like　an　almond。　Cecca；　too；　devised　mechanisms　　for　such　displays。　The　spiritual　corporations　or　the　quarters　of　the　　city　which　undertook　the　charge　and　in　part　the　performance　of　these　　plays　spared；　at　all　events　in　the　larger　towns；　no　trouble　and　expense　　to　render　them　as　perf